Mechanical Stage of a Microscope

What is a Mechanical Stage of a Microscope?

• A microscope mechanical stage is a mechanism designed to hold and manipulate the microscope slide, providing the user with greater control and ease of use during observation. While it is not a mandatory component for viewing images, having a mechanical stage significantly enhances the functionality of a biological microscope, especially at higher magnifications.
• In its absence, a typical biological microscope would have only two stage clips to secure the slide in place. However, at higher magnifications, such as 400x or 1000x, moving the slide with just your fingers can be challenging and frustrating. Even a slight movement might cause the specimen to shift out of the field of view, making it difficult to examine different parts of the sample.
• Using a mechanical stage allows the microscopist to precisely move the slide in small increments either from left to right or forward and backward. This level of control is crucial when trying to explore specific regions of the specimen at high magnifications without accidentally displacing it.
• To attach a mechanical stage to a microscope without one, the stage clips are removed, and the mechanical stage is screwed onto the flat microscope stage. Once installed, the user can make use of the two knobs on the mechanical stage to achieve precise and controlled movements of the slide during observation.
• In conclusion, while a microscope mechanical stage is not a mandatory requirement for observing images, it greatly improves the overall usability and efficiency of a biological microscope, especially when dealing with higher magnifications. It empowers the microscopist with better control over the slide, ensuring smooth and accurate exploration of the specimen without displacements or frustrations.

Definition of Mechanical Stage

A mechanical stage of a microscope is a movable platform that securely holds and allows precise manipulation of the microscope slide, enhancing observation at various magnifications.

Components of the Mechanical Stage

The mechanical stage of a microscope consists of several essential components, each serving a specific purpose:

1. Slide Holder: The slide holder is a mechanical device designed to securely hold the microscope slide in place. It allows the slide to be easily moved from side to side and back and forth, providing precise control over the positioning of the specimen.
2. Stage Opening: The stage opening is a part of the mechanical stage that allows light to pass through the specimen. By permitting the passage of light from the condenser, the stage opening ensures a well-illuminated view of the specimen, improving visibility and image quality.
3. Stage Lock Control: The stage lock control is a locking mechanism that enables the user to fix the position of the mechanical stage. By securing the stage into position with respect to its rotation around the condenser axis, it prevents unintentional movement during observation and ensures stability.
4. Graduated Locator Markings: Graduated locator markings are scale-like markings positioned on the mechanical stage. These graduations allow the microscopist to note the location of significant details on the specimen. This feature facilitates easy return to specific areas of interest for further observation or documentation.

In summary, the components of the mechanical stage, including the slide holder, stage opening, stage lock control, and graduated locator markings, work together to provide the microscopist with enhanced control and ease of use while examining specimens under the microscope.

Types of Mechanical Stage

There are several types of mechanical stages used in microscopes, each designed for specific purposes:

1. X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage: This type of mechanical stage allows precise movement of the specimen slide in both the X (right and left) and Y (back and forth) directions. It enables the microscopist to examine the entire microscope slide by smoothly translating it across the field of view.
2. Simple Stage with Attachable Mechanical Stage: The simple stage is a basic rectangular stage with stage clips to hold the specimen slide. It is useful for quick examinations but challenging to use with high-power objectives. An attachable mechanical stage can be added to enable minute translation of the slide, making it easier to find specific areas on the specimen.
3. Circular Stage with Optional Mechanical Attachment: The circular graduated stage is highly versatile and rotates 360°, allowing complete rotation of the samples. It is suitable for photomicrography and analytical measurements, and some designs come with optional mechanical attachments for accurate translation of samples.
4. Inverted Microscope Stages: These stages are designed for inverted microscopes, where objectives are placed below the stage. They feature large stage openings with various inserts to accommodate different sample sizes.
5. High-Magnification Measuring Systems: Precision microscopes with micrometer-style translational apparatus allow for accurate measurements of miniature precision parts, semiconductors, and electronic components.
6. Micromanipulators: Micromanipulator stages enable manipulation of specimens while under observation, often used in tissue culture, in vitro fertilization, and genetic implantation procedures.
7. Universal Stage: Universal stages permit tilting of thin specimens at any angle for measuring the optical structure of birefringent crystals. They are designed to work with special long working distance objectives and low magnifications.

These specialized microscope stages cater to various research needs and applications, such as semiconductor examination, biomedical investigations, cell manipulation, materials research, and geology. Manufacturers and aftermarket suppliers offer a range of options to suit specific experimental requirements.

1. X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage

• The X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage is an essential component of a microscope that enhances the user’s ability to observe and study specimens in detail. This type of mechanical stage is typically found on rectangular stages and comes equipped with a specimen slide translational control device, commonly known as a mechanical stage.
• The main function of the X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage is to provide precise and controlled movement of the specimen slide in both the X (right and left) and Y (back and forth) directions. This allows the microscopist to examine the entire microscope slide thoroughly, as the specimen can be smoothly translated across the field of view.
• For right-handed microscopists, the X-Y control knobs are positioned on the right-hand side of the mechanical stage, enabling them to manipulate the slide easily and effectively. Conversely, for left-handed microscopists, similar mechanical stages are available with the control knobs situated on the left-hand side, ensuring comfortable usage for both right and left-handed users.
• The X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage also features a relatively large opening in the center, designed to allow light from the condenser to pass through the specimen. This ensures proper illumination of the sample, leading to clearer and more detailed observations.
• Additionally, the mechanical stage is equipped with a locking control mechanism, allowing the user to fix the stage into a specific position with respect to its rotation around the condenser axis. This ensures stability during observation, preventing unintentional movement that could disrupt the view.
• Another valuable feature of this mechanical stage is the presence of graduated locator marks on its surface. These marks act as a scale or reference points, allowing the microscopist to note the location of important specimen details. This enables easy navigation and ensures that specific areas of interest can be revisited for additional observation or for capturing photomicrographs.
• In summary, the X-Y Transitional Mechanical Stage plays a crucial role in enhancing the functionality of a microscope. By providing precise movement control in both horizontal and vertical directions, facilitating proper specimen illumination, and offering convenient reference points, this mechanical stage significantly improves the overall user experience and contributes to more detailed and systematic examination of specimens.

2. Simple Stage with Attachable Mechanical Stage

• A “Simple Stage with Attachable Mechanical Stage” refers to a basic type of microscope stage that is equipped with stage clips for holding the slide in place. This simple stage is visually identifiable by its spring-loaded stage clips that lift and secure the slide in position. However, adjusting the slide for observation must be done manually by the observer’s fingers, which can be challenging under high magnification as slight movements can inadvertently shift the specimen out of the field of view.
• The simple stage typically includes locking and stopping mechanisms to enhance usability. A stage lock control allows the user to fix the stage in place after focusing the image to prevent accidental movements. Additionally, the stage may feature a rack stop, which can be adjusted to prevent the stage from moving too close to the objective lenses, thereby protecting the lenses from potential damage.
• While a simple stage is useful for quick examinations of specimens, it may become difficult to use with higher power objectives (above 20X) due to the limited control offered by manual adjustments. At higher magnifications, small translations of the specimen slide can lead to loss of the observed features, making it frustrating to relocate them accurately.
• To address this limitation, the simple stage can be paired with an attachable mechanical stage. The mechanical stage attachment is designed to be easily affixed to the simple stage, replacing the stage clips. This mechanical attachment allows for minute translation of the specimen slide, facilitating smoother and more controlled movements, especially at higher magnifications. With the attachable mechanical stage, the microscopist can easily find specific areas on the slide and maintain precise observations.
• The difference between the simple stage and the mechanical stage illustrated in Figure 1 lies in their respective designs. While the simple stage has a limited stage opening, the mechanical stage shown in Figure 1 features a larger opening in the center, allowing light from the condenser to pass through the specimen for better illumination.
• Both the simple stage and the attachable mechanical stage can be rotated with respect to the microscope body to facilitate framing during photomicrography. However, the simple stage, as depicted in Figure 2, is not centerable. On the other hand, some mechanical stage designs discussed below are capable of being centered with respect to the optical axis of the microscope, allowing for more precise and centered observations.
• In conclusion, a “Simple Stage with Attachable Mechanical Stage” provides a basic stage setup with stage clips, suitable for quick examinations. However, when higher magnifications and more controlled movements are required, the attachable mechanical stage becomes a valuable addition, allowing for smoother translation of the specimen slide and enhancing the microscopist’s ability to observe and study specimens in detail.

3. Circular Stage with Optional Mechanical Attachment

• The “Circular Stage with Optional Mechanical Attachment” is a versatile and highly functional design commonly used in various microscopy and photomicrography applications. This type of stage is illustrated on the left in Figure 3 and is known for its 360° rotational capability, allowing for complete rotation of samples and providing great ease in fine-tuning the composition of viewfields for photomicrography.
• Key features of the circular stage include graduations on the periphery, which enable precise alignment when performing critical analytical measurements. The stage is designed to rotate smoothly on ball bearings, ensuring precision rotation without any jerks, bumps, or stalls, which is essential for maintaining stability during microscopy procedures.
• The circular stage is equipped with two centering knobs (as shown in Figure 3) that enable precise centering of the stage with respect to the optical axis of the microscope. When used in conjunction with objectives in a centering nosepiece, the microscope can be adjusted to be parcentric. This means that a specimen centered in the field of view for one objective will remain centered when the nosepiece is rotated to switch to another objective.
• One notable advantage of the circular stage is its optional mechanical stage attachment, which is illustrated on the right in Figure 3. This attachment allows for accurate translation of samples, similar to the mechanical stages discussed earlier. With this optional mechanical attachment, precise movement of the specimen slide can be achieved, enhancing the microscopist’s ability to observe and study specific areas of interest on the slide.
• Circular stages typically have pre-drilled mounting holes that allow for easy and secure attachment of the optional mechanical stage. Additionally, they come with a stage rotation lock, which allows the stage to be fixed into a single position when needed, providing stability during observations and analyses. Some circular stages are equipped with click stops at 45° intervals of rotation, serving as indicators for the microscopist during sample positioning.
• In summary, the “Circular Stage with Optional Mechanical Attachment” is a highly versatile and practical design used in various microscopy applications. Its ability to rotate 360° and the presence of graduations make it suitable for precise photomicrography and analytical measurements. The optional mechanical attachment further enhances its functionality by enabling accurate translation of samples, making it an excellent choice for advanced microscopy techniques that require precise control over specimen positioning.

4. Inverted Microscope Stages

• Inverted microscope stages are a fundamental component of inverted microscopes, which are configured differently from standard upright microscopes. In these microscopes, the objectives are placed below the stage, and they utilize various condenser configurations to illuminate the specimen. There are two main types of inverted microscopes: tissue culture microscopes and epi-illumination microscopes (used in metallography and related fields).
• Tissue culture microscopes have a condenser that is mounted above the stage, while epi-illumination microscopes have a substage condenser that precedes the objectives. Both types of microscopes require a slightly modified stage, as illustrated in Figure 4.
• The inverted microscope stage shares a basic overall design with the mechanical stage illustrated in Figure 1. It features translational controls that enable the stage and specimen to be moved in both the X (right and left) and Y (back and forth) directions. However, the main difference lies in the large stage opening of the inverted microscope stage, which accommodates an insert. These inserts are typically made of stainless steel and come in various sizes to cater to different sample sizes.
• For instance, in inverted tissue culture microscopes, researchers often need to scan large culture flasks to observe the entire population of cells. The large opening provided by the stage insert makes this task much more manageable. On the other hand, when observing smaller specimens, an insert with a very small opening is used to support the sample for observation.
• Unlike some other stages, inverted microscope stages do not translate up and down. Focusing in inverted microscopes is achieved using a translatable nosepiece that, along with the objectives, moves up and down to bring the specimen into focus.
• The inverted stage is similar to the mechanical stage in that it allows control of slide movements through knobs that move the slide along the X and Y axes. However, its larger opening sets it apart, enabling the placement of larger samples on the stage.
• The term “inverted” in the context of inverted microscopes refers to the fact that the objectives are positioned below the stage, while the light source is above, which is the opposite configuration of a standard compound light microscope. This inverted design also affects the focusing mechanism. Instead of relying solely on movement from the stage, the inverted microscope achieves focus through a combination of adjustments from the nosepiece and objective lens. This arrangement eliminates the risk of the stage crashing into the objective lens, which can occur in typical light microscopes. Inverted microscopes and their specialized stages are particularly useful in various applications, including tissue culture research and metallography, where precise observations of large or delicate specimens are required.

5. High-Magnification Measuring Systems/Precision Measurement Stage

• High-magnification measuring systems, also known as precision measurement stages, are essential tools in quantitative microscopy, especially when highly accurate measurements of various specimen dimensions are required. These precision stages are commonly used in applications such as measuring miniature precision parts, semiconductors, and assembling magnetic heads and other minute electronic components.
• One example of a precision microscope stage is illustrated in Figure 5. It is equipped with a micrometer-style translational apparatus, which enables extremely precise and controlled movements of both the stage and the specimen. The stage is also designed to be rotatable over the entire 360° range, providing complete control over the measurements being taken.
• Microscopes designed for precision measurement stages may be equipped with prisms for Erect Image Observation. In this observation mode, both the observed image and the specimen move in the same direction, which is the opposite of the movement in most microscopes. This unique feature ensures accurate measurements and facilitates detailed examination of the specimen.
• Electronic controllers are often integrated with these specialized stages, providing accurate digital readouts of the stage position. Additionally, these controllers can be programmed to execute precise stage movements in a sequence of steps, further enhancing the precision and efficiency of the measurement process.
• The design of precision measurement stages can vary widely, and many aftermarket manufacturers offer custom-configured stages to meet specific customer requirements. The size of the stage itself can range from 50 X 50 to 300 X 300 millimeters, providing ample space for measuring small and intricate components.
• Precision measurement stages are commonly used with measuring microscopes, and they play a crucial role in quality testing processes for components in high-technology fields that demand precise measurements of very small pieces. The stages are equipped with a rotatable stage plate, allowing 360-degree movement, and edge detection capabilities, enabling measurements to be taken from any point on the specimen.
• Overall, high-magnification measuring systems, with their precision stages and advanced features, are indispensable tools for industries that rely on accurate measurements and quality assurance of miniature components and high-tech devices.

6. Micromanipulators

• Micromanipulators are specialized equipment used in microscopy when precise manipulation of specimens is required during observation. These manipulators play a crucial role in various scientific applications, including tissue culture, in vitro fertilization experiments, genetic implantation procedures, and more, where close observation and accurate handling of samples are necessary.
• The micromanipulator stage, as illustrated in Figure 6, exemplifies this type of equipment. It typically features two triple-axis hydraulically controlled water micromanipulators, which allow for highly accurate handling of specimens. These manipulators can be adjusted to perform a wide range of functions, from microinjection to electrochemistry experiments, depending on the specific scientific requirements.
• In practical use, micromanipulators are employed to interact with and manipulate samples with movements that are precise to the submicron scale. These manipulations are vital in applications such as circuit engineering, specialized engineering, biology, and optics, where minute adjustments can have significant effects.
• For instance, in in vitro fertilization experiments, micromanipulators are utilized to carefully handle embryos and monitor crucial aspects like pH levels and nutrient supply accurately. Similarly, in genetic implantation procedures, the micromanipulators aid in the precise implantation of genetic material.
• Micromanipulators can be configured to accommodate specific angles and avenues of manipulation, ensuring that the manipulation process is tailored to the unique requirements of each experiment.
• Various manufacturers supply micromanipulators and accessories that can be attached to commercial microscopes, such as those manufactured by Olympus and Nikon, making them compatible with a wide range of microscopy setups.
• Overall, micromanipulators are invaluable tools in scientific research, enabling researchers and scientists to perform delicate and precise manipulations on microscopic specimens, leading to advancements in various fields, from biotechnology to electronics and beyond.

7. Universal Stage

• The universal stage is a specialized microscope stage designed to facilitate the examination of thin specimens at various angles for measuring the optical structure of birefringent crystals. This stage, as illustrated in Figure 7, offers unparalleled flexibility in sample positioning and orientation, making it a valuable tool in certain scientific applications.
• Designed to be used with special long working distance (LWD) objectives and very low magnifications typically ranging from 5X to 20X, the universal stage is especially useful when examining liquids, layered rock samples, and birefringent crystals. These stages are graduated on all four axes, and rotation scales are distinguished by different color codes. The main body of the stage has four rotating centers that rest on a common point, allowing for precise adjustments.
• The universal stage employs two hemispherical lenses that sandwich the specimen between their plane surfaces, and immersion oil is applied to all contact surfaces to enhance optical clarity and performance during observation.
• Installation of the universal stage involves attaching it to a circular petrography stage, as shown in Figure 3, using screws that are permanently fixed onto the universal stage. Prior to installation, the central ring on the microscope stage must be removed to facilitate the centering of the universal stage.
• One of the primary advantages of the universal stage is its ability to rotate 360 degrees across multiple axes (usually three or four), offering the observer complete freedom to position the sample at any desired angle. This versatility is particularly beneficial when analyzing samples that require frequent changes in orientation, without the need for time-consuming reconfigurations of the stage.
• However, it’s essential to consider that the universal stage may have certain limitations. Due to the requirement for a significant distance between the specimen and the objective, the magnification is typically limited to low levels. As a result, it is best suited for applications where high magnification is not a primary concern.
• While universal stages are no longer commonly manufactured by major microscope producers, a limited number of them are still available through distributors and custom aftermarket manufacturers. Researchers and scientists who require the unique capabilities of the universal stage may find it to be a valuable and essential tool in their scientific endeavors, particularly in studying the optical properties of birefringent crystals and other specialized applications.

Other Types of Mechanical Stage

Stereo Microscope Stage

• The stereo microscope stage is an integral component of a stereo microscope, which is designed for observing three-dimensional objects at lower magnifications. Unlike a compound light microscope, where light is condensed into a cone and focused up through a hole in the stage, the stereo microscope stage is transparent, and a bulb light source shines light directly through the stage plate.
• One of the main distinguishing features of the stereo microscope stage is that it is not equipped with a mechanical stage. This is because specimens observed under stereo microscopes are typically larger and more substantial, making them easier to manipulate by hand. The lack of a mechanical stage allows for convenient manual adjustments of the specimen’s position and orientation during observation.
• Stereo microscopes are widely used in various fields, such as biology, electronics, jewelry making, and industrial inspection, where the examination of larger objects or specimens with three-dimensional details is essential. The transparent stage plate, in combination with the stereo microscope’s binocular eyepiece configuration, provides a natural and comfortable viewing experience, enabling users to perceive depth and spatial relationships of the objects being observed.
• By not having a mechanical stage, the stereo microscope stage offers a simple and user-friendly setup. Users can hold, rotate, and manipulate the specimen directly on the stage surface, which is particularly advantageous when studying objects that require constant adjustments for optimal observation.
• Overall, the stereo microscope stage plays a crucial role in facilitating the examination of three-dimensional objects, providing researchers, hobbyists, and professionals with a practical and efficient tool for exploring the intricate details of larger specimens with ease. Its transparent design and lack of a mechanical stage contribute to the convenience and versatility of stereo microscopes, making them a valuable asset in various applications that require the study of objects in three dimensions.

Electron Microscope Stage

• The electron microscope stage is a specialized and critical component used in electron microscopy, a powerful imaging technique that allows scientists to observe structures at extremely high magnifications and resolutions. Unlike traditional light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen, enabling the visualization of nanoscale structures and details.
• One of the key features of the electron microscope stage is its nonmagnetic nature. This is essential because electron microscopes operate within a vacuum environment, and any magnetic materials could interfere with the precise movement of electrons and potentially distort the imaging process. Therefore, the stage is constructed using nonmagnetic materials to ensure accurate and undisturbed electron beam interactions with the specimen.
• Moreover, the electron microscope stage is designed with a piezoelectric actuator, a specialized component that allows for nano-positioning of the specimen. Piezoelectric materials can change shape when subjected to an electric field, enabling precise and rapid adjustments in position. This level of fine control is crucial in electron microscopy, where the accurate positioning of the specimen is vital for obtaining clear and detailed images at nanometer scales.
• The combination of a nonmagnetic design and a piezoelectric actuator in the electron microscope stage ensures stability, precision, and reliability during the imaging process. Scientists can manipulate the position of the specimen with extreme accuracy, enabling them to focus on specific areas of interest and acquire high-resolution images of intricate structures and features.
• Electron microscopy is widely used in various scientific fields, including materials science, nanotechnology, biology, and medicine, where the visualization of nanoscale structures and details is essential for advancing research and understanding complex phenomena.
• In summary, the electron microscope stage is a specialized and sophisticated component that plays a crucial role in electron microscopy. Its nonmagnetic construction and incorporation of a piezoelectric actuator enable precise and controlled nano-positioning of the specimen within the vacuum environment, facilitating high-resolution imaging and analysis at the nanometer scale. This advanced technology has revolutionized the study of nanoscale structures and has become an invaluable tool for scientific research and discovery.

How to Use the Mechanical Stage?

Using the mechanical stage of a microscope is a straightforward process that allows for precise movement and detailed viewing of the specimen. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to effectively use the mechanical stage:

1. Prepare the Microscopic Slide: Gently place the microscope slide under the objective lens after lowering the stage assembly. Ensure the slide is securely held or clipped in place between the heads of the slide holder. Some microscopes may have slide holders capable of holding multiple slides simultaneously.
2. Align the Slide Above the Stage Opening: Position the slide in a way that it lies above or across the stage opening, allowing light from the condenser to pass through the specimen on the slide. Proper alignment ensures sufficient illumination for observation.
3. Observe and Focus: Look through the eyepiece and start focusing on the specimen of interest. Use the focusing knobs to bring the specimen into sharp focus.
4. Use the X and Y Knobs: The mechanical stage is equipped with two translational knobs: one for the x-axis (left and right) and the other for the y-axis (back and forth). Slowly and smoothly turn these knobs to move the stage and thus the slide containing the specimen. This controlled movement helps in gradually shifting the specimen under observation, providing a clear and detailed view.
5. Record the Specimen Location: To facilitate easy return to specific areas of interest for additional observation later, note the location of the slide on the mechanical stage. Use the readings of the graduated locator marks present on the top right and along the right side of the mechanical stage to record the position.
6. Maintain Cleanliness: It is essential to regularly clean the mechanical stage to prevent the accumulation of dirt, debris, or specimen residue. Such accumulation may hinder the smooth movement of the mechanical stage and compromise the quality of observation.

By following these steps, users can effectively utilize the mechanical stage of a microscope to explore specimens in detail, make observations, and record important findings for future reference.

Functions of Mechanical Stage

The mechanical stage of a microscope serves several important functions that enhance the user’s experience and improve the quality of observation:

1. Precise and Accurate Positioning: The mechanical stage allows for precise and accurate positioning of the slide. With a numbered scale built into each axis, it becomes easy to record the x and y positions of the slide, making it effortless to find specific structures again for further examination or documentation.
2. Smooth Movement: Unlike stage clips, a mechanical stage enables smooth and controlled movement of the slide. This feature is particularly useful when recording videos through the microscope or when observing moving organisms in water, as it allows for smooth tracking of the specimen’s motion.
3. Pressure-Free Slide Manipulation: The use of mechanical stage knobs for moving the slide ensures that no pressure is exerted on the stage, which could lead to the specimen going out of focus. This gentle and controlled movement prevents unwanted disturbances during observation.
4. Improved Control at High Magnifications: At high magnifications, the required horizontal movements of the slide are minuscule. The mechanical stage allows for precise adjustments, which is challenging to achieve by moving the slide directly with fingers. The fine control provided by the mechanical stage prevents the specimen from quickly going out of the field of view.
5. Systematic Scanning: The mechanical stage facilitates systematic scanning of the slide, allowing the microscopist to view the entire specimen systematically. This is especially valuable when studying large or complex samples.
6. Enhanced User Experience: The mechanical stage provides a better user experience by offering smoother and more controlled movements, making the use of the microscope easier and less frustrating.
7. Optimal Viewing: With the ability to move the stage horizontally on the X-Y axis, the mechanical stage allows the user to center the specimen for optimal viewing. This ensures that the focal point is not in the periphery or out of view, providing clear and focused observations.

In summary, the mechanical stage of a microscope significantly enhances the functionality and usability of the instrument. Its precise movement, fine control, and ability to center the specimen make it an indispensable component, especially for detailed and high-magnification observations. Using a mechanical stage not only provides better views of the specimen but also improves the overall user experience while working with the microscope.

FAQ

References

1. https://www.microscopemaster.com/mechanical-stage-of-a-microscope.html
2. https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/stage.html
3. https://blog.microscopeworld.com/2014/03/microscope-mechanical-stage.html
4. https://www.microscopeworld.com/c-239-mechanical-stages.aspx
5. https://sciencelab.co.ke/products/microscope-mechanical-stage
6. https://microscopecentral.com/collections/mechanical-stages
7. https://www.laboratorydeal.com/products/mechanical-stage-for-microscope-0009-by-labpro
8. http://www.biologyaspoetry.com/terms/mechanical_stage.html
9. https://www.yc.edu/v6/academics/pathway/biodocs/Microscope181.pdf
10. http://www.shincoscientificapparatus.com/mechanical-stage-4438227.html
11. https://www.microscope.com/omano-omxys-76-mechanical-stage-small.html
12. https://microscopeclarity.com/the-stage-of-a-microscope-where-the-story-is-told/
13. https://www.homesciencetools.com/product/mechanical-stage/
14. https://www.microbehunter.com/what-are-the-advantages-of-a-mechanical-stage/
15. https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope-resource/primer/anatomy/stage/
16. https://www.microscope-depot.com/_popups/mechstg.asp
17. https://scopedetective.com/mechanical-stage-function/#Mechanical_Stage_Functions
18. https://www.mccrone.com/mm/microscope-activity-11-use-mechanical-stage/
19. https://www.allthescience.org/what-is-a-mechanical-stage.htm
20. https://amscope.com/collections/microscope-parts-accessories-microscope-mechanical-stages