What is a Cytotoxic T cell? A cytotoxic T cell (also known as TC, cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL, T-killer cell, cytolytic T cell, CD8+ T-cell or killer T cell) is a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells infected with intracellular pathogens (such as viruses or bacteria), and other … Read more
What is Hypersensitivity? Definition of Hypersensitivity Hypersensitivity is an abnormal and exaggerated response of the immune system to a substance (antigen) that is usually harmless. It can lead to allergic reactions and immune-related diseases. Causes Of Hypersensitivity Diseases Hypersensitivity is caused by various immune responses that can be triggered by different types of antigens. The … Read more
Animal models of autoimmune illnesses have provided invaluable insights into the mechanism of autoimmunity, human autoimmunity, and prospective therapies. Certain inbred animal breeds develop autoimmunity naturally, and autoimmunity can also be caused by certain experimental procedures. Autoimmunity Can Develop Spontaneously in Animals Several spontaneously occurring autoimmune illnesses in animals share significant clinical and pathologic parallels … Read more
What is Immunodeficiency? Immune system integrity is necessary for protection against pathogenic organisms and their harmful byproducts, and thus for the survival of all persons. Defects in one or more immune system components can result in life-threatening and frequently deadly conditions known together as immunodeficiency diseases. Immunodeficiency illnesses and syndromes are a major cause of … Read more
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is an uncommon inherited primary immunological weakness that affects particular white blood cells (neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils). The illness is characterised by a failure to resist certain bacterial and fungal infections and a propensity to develop persistent inflammation. Life-threatening recurrent fungal and bacterial infections affecting the skin, … Read more
Oncologists and immunologists have long been optimistic about the potential of immunologic techniques to treat cancer patients. The primary interest in an immunologic approach stems from the fact that the majority of existing cancer treatments rely on medications that kill dividing cells or stop cell division, and these treatments have severe side effects on normal … Read more
What is a tumor? A mass or collection of aberrant cells that develops as a tumour. A tumour might not always indicate malignancy. Several tumours are benign (not cancerous). Throughout the body, tumours can develop. Bone, skin, tissues, glands, and organs can all be impacted. Tumors are also referred to as neoplasms. A solid mass … Read more
What is Flow cytometry? Flow cytometry is an indispensable instrument for the contemporary immunologist. It was created by the Herzenbergs (Leonore and Leonard) and their colleagues, and among its initial applications was the analysis of blood cells, namely lymphocyte subpopulations. Flow cytometry is an analytical method that counts the frequencies of cells attaching to fluorescent … Read more
What is Bioaerosol? Bioaerosols (short for biological aerosols) are a subclass of particles produced into the atmosphere by terrestrial and marine ecosystems. They are made up of both live and nonliving components, including fungi, pollen, bacteria, and viruses. Common bioaerosol sources include soil, water, and sewage. Typically, bioaerosols are delivered into the atmosphere by wind … Read more
Host Pathogen Interaction The host–pathogen interaction is described as the molecular, cellular, organismal, or population-level sustenance of bacteria or viruses within host organisms. This phrase is widely used to describe to bacteria that cause disease, however they may not infect all hosts. As a result, the concept has been expanded to include how infections persist … Read more
What is Denitrification? The nitrogen cycle concludes with denitrification. The nitrogen cycle consists of living organisms fixing atmospheric nitrogen and then releasing it back into the atmosphere. Denitrification is the process of releasing nitrogen from living organisms into the atmosphere. By converting nitrate (NO3-) to nitrogen gas, the nitrogen component is returned to the atmosphere … Read more
What is Mycorrhiza? Definition of Mycorrhiza Mycorrhiza refers to the symbiotic association between specific fungi and plant roots, where the fungus aids in nutrient and water uptake for the plant, and in return, the plant provides the fungus with essential nutrients produced through photosynthesis. Types of Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizas are often classified as either ectomycorrhizas or … Read more
What is Nitrogen Fixation? Nitrogen fixation is the fundamental biological process and the first step in the nitrogen cycle. Certain bacterial species, such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, etc., and other natural phenomena convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (another type of nitrogen) throughout this process. NASA reports that the air in the earth’s atmosphere is composed of … Read more
What is Nodule? Commonly found in the roots of leguminous plants are nodules. The production of nodules is known as nodulation. They are the result of a relationship with the nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium. Rhizobia is the umbrella word for various nitrogen-fixing bacterial taxa, such as Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, etc. Plants cannot directly absorb nitrogen from the … Read more
Bacteria Definition Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms without a real nucleus and a few organelles. Phenotypic Characteristics of Bacteria Morphologic Characteristics Growth Characteristics Antigens and Phage Susceptibility Biochemical Characteristics Reproduction in Bacteria Useful Bacteria Not all germs pose a threat to human health. There are bacteria that are advantageous in many ways. Below are a … Read more
Extremophiles Definition Extremophiles are organisms that have evolved to thrive in settings that were once believed to be completely inhospitable. These habitats are unfriendly, reaching extremes of severe heat, acidity, pressure, and cold that are lethal to most other forms of life. Due to the fact that extremophiles inhabit the extreme ends of the spectrum, … Read more
Microbe-Plant interaction Plants are immobile, but they are continuously subjected to both biotic and abiotic stress. Constant warfare exists between harmful microorganisms and the host plant, with the outcome determining resistance or disease. Plants exude a variety of organic substances, resulting in a nutrient-rich environment that is conducive to microbial growth. Therefore, plants are highly … Read more
Various sorts of positive and negative interactions between microorganisms and plants/animals have been described previously. Similar to humans, microorganisms communicate with one another and result in both beneficial and detrimental connections. In this context, the following interactions and interrelationships have been discussed: 1. Symbiosis between Alga and Fungus (Lichens) Lichen is a thallus comprising two … Read more
Air microbiology Air microbiology is the study of suspended microorganisms in the air. Also known as aero microbiology. The study of microbes and their airborne spores that are invisible to the naked eye. Aero-spoliation, airborne transmission, and biological materials research. In addition, respiratory illnesses are studied. Important to the subject of aero-microbiology is the formation … Read more
Salts and gases are dissolved in natural waters, especially sea and mineral waters. 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water, making it the most vital habitat for life. It is estimated that the total volume of inland waters is 7,5 x 105 km3, that of seas and oceans is 1,4 x 109 km3, … Read more
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