What is Spliceosome? Spliceosomes are large, multi megadalton ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes found in eukaryotic nuclei. They assemble on RNA polymerase II transcripts, from which they remove introns and splice exons. This so-called pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing is a crucial stage in the synthesis of eukaryotic messenger RNA (mRNA). Each human cell includes approximately 100,000 spliceosomes, … Read more
What is Intron? Introns are sequences that exist between two exons in eukaryotes. They do not code for proteins directly. They are eliminated prior to mRNA translation into proteins. Therefore, these introns are subjected to splicing. Introns, which are the non-coding portions of nucleotides, are not highly conserved. Therefore, removing introns is necessary to prevent … Read more
RNA Interference Definition RNA interference is the process by which RNA molecules suppress gene expression by neutralising the targeted messenger RNA molecules. RNA interference is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that is triggered by double-stranded RNA and employs the gene’s own DNA sequence to silence it. This is referred to as gene silencing. It is a … Read more
What are Ribozymes (RNA enzymes)? Ribozymes are catalytically active RNA molecules or RNA–protein complexes in which the RNA alone is responsible for the catalytic activity. The term ribozyme simultaneously refers to enzymatic activity and ribonucleic acid nature. Ribozymes are present in the genomes of all living kingdoms. Hairpin, hammerhead, Hepatitis delta virus (HDV), Varkud Satellite, … Read more
What is Transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA)? Transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA), also known as 10Sa or SsrA RNA, is exceptional among bifunctional RNAs in that it possesses both tRNA and mRNA characteristics. tmRNA employs these two activities to liberate translationally stalled ribosomes and to target nascent polypeptides for destruction. This coordinated reaction, known as trans-translation, helps to bacterial … Read more
What is Enhancer RNA? Enhancer RNAs, or eRNAs, are small molecules of non-coding RNA that are transcribed from enhancer loci. They are involved in the regulation of gene transcription and can be used to treat disease. 2010 saw the discovery of enhancer RNAs using high-throughput sequencing to locate stimuli-dependent enhancers. This demonstrated the RNA polymerase … Read more
What is Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)? Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) is a small RNA with an average length of 150 nucleotides. A variety of noncoding RNAs are encoded by eukaryotic genomes, and snRNA is a kind of highly abundant, nucleus-localized RNA with essential roles in intron splicing and other RNA processing. In order to mediate … Read more
What is shRNA (Short-hairpin RNA)? The shRNA is our short hairpin RNA, which is shorter, artificially manufactured, double-stranded ribonucleic acid that can be used in gene silencing investigations. shRNA is a form of RNA interference (RNAi) technology used to investigate the function of uncharacterized genes. RNAi functions by inhibiting gene function in order to examine … Read more
What is Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)? Eukaryotic mRNAs, unlike prokaryotic mRNAs, are monocistronic. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA describes the primary transcript in eukaryotes, which is substantially larger than mature mRNA (hnRNA). It contains sequences that are distinct and has approximately 10 times as many sequences as mature mRNA. hnRNA is processed to form mRNA; hence, it … Read more
Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are a family of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. Since their discovery in 1993, they have been the topic of extensive research due to their role in numerous crucial biological processes. Unlike other noncoding RNAs, microRNAs are created from transcriptional units that are processed by a particular group of endonucleases. … Read more
What is Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)? Small interfering RNA (siRNA), also known as short interfering RNA or silencing RNA, is a type of double-stranded RNA molecules that function within the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. It inhibits translation, hence inhibiting the expression of certain genes with complementary nucleotide sequences, by degrading mRNA after transcription. siRNA is … Read more
What is Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)? Ribonucleic acid refers to the RNA contained in ribosomes, the molecules responsible for catalysing protein synthesis (rRNA). Over 60-80% of the ribosome’s mass is formed of ribosomal RNA, which is important for all of the ribosome’s actions, such as binding to messenger RNA, attracting transfer RNA, and facilitating the synthesis … Read more
Degradation of messenger RNA (mRNA) is an essential mechanism for controlling gene expression in bacterial cells. This process involves the coordinated action of a battery of cellular endonucleases and exonucleases, some of which are species-specific. They operate with the help of enzymes that covalently modify the 5′ or 3′ end of RNA or unwind base-paired … Read more
What is mRNA? This sort of RNA acts by transferring genetic material into ribosomes and transmitting instructions regarding the types of proteins that body cells require. Based on their roles, these RNA types are known as messenger RNA. Therefore, mRNA plays an essential function in the transcription process or during protein synthesis. Messenger ribonucleic acids … Read more
Transfer RNAs, or tRNAs, are molecules that transport amino acids to the ribosome based on the nucleotide sequence of messenger RNA (mRNA). In this manner, they serve as the link between nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Because tRNAs are ribonucleic acids, they can establish hydrogen bonds with mRNA. In addition, they can create ester bonds … Read more
The hunt for genetic material began in the middle of the nineteenth century. The principle of inheritance was discovered by Mendel. Mendel concluded from his research that some ‘factors’ are transmitted from one generation to the next. Mendel’s Law of Inheritance served as the foundation for genetic material study. Keeping his conclusions in mind, subsequent … Read more
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did a series of tests in 1952 called the Hershey–Chase experiments. These tests helped prove that DNA is genetic material. Alfred Hershey, who was a scientist, and Martha Chase Biologists have known about DNA since 1869, but at the time, many scientists still thought that proteins carried the information for … Read more
Many individuals believe that in the 1950s, American biologist James Watson and English physicist Francis Crick discovered DNA. In actuality, this is not true. DNA was discovered by the Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher in the late 1860s. Then, in the decades that followed Miescher’s discovery, other scientists, notably Phoebus Levene and Erwin Chargaff, conducted a … Read more
What is DNA? DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides stuck together (or simply deoxynucleotides). It is made up of deoxyadenylate (dAMP), deoxyguanylate (dGMP), deoxycytidylate (dCMP), and deoxythymidylate (dTMP) units (dTMP) (Some authors prefer to use TMP instead of deoxythymidylate because it is only found in DNA.) History of DNA The history of DNA begins with … Read more
Pyrimidines and Pyrimidine Nucleotides Structure of Pyrimidines and Pyrimidine Nucleotides Cytosine, thymine, uracil, and orotate are the most common pyrimidines in nucleotides. In comparison to the typical pyrimidine ring structure, cytosine has oxo (keto) and amino groups at positions 2 and 4, while orotate has oxo groups at positions 2 and 4 and a carboxyl … Read more
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