Peroxisome – Definition, Structure, Biogenesis, Enzymes, Functions

What is Peroxisome?

• Peroxisomes, integral components of eukaryotic cells, are membrane-bound organelles with a primary function in lipid metabolism and the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. These organelles play a pivotal role in the breakdown of lipids, particularly fats, which are energy-dense molecules. Given the hydrophobic nature of lipids, their metabolism in the aqueous cellular milieu presents challenges. Peroxisomes address this by providing a specialized environment for such metabolic processes.
• These organelles are equipped with oxidative enzymes that facilitate various metabolic reactions, including those related to energy metabolism. Notably, peroxisomes engage in the catabolism of specific fatty acids, such as very long chain and branched chain fatty acids.
• Additionally, they are involved in the synthesis of plasmalogens, ether phospholipids essential for the optimal functioning of mammalian brains and lungs. Another crucial function of peroxisomes is the management of reactive oxygen species. They are adept at converting potentially harmful molecules like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into benign substances, namely water and oxygen, thus safeguarding cellular integrity.
• The discovery of peroxisomes can be attributed to the Belgian cytologist, Christian de Duve, in 1967. These organelles were initially termed “microbodies” due to their minuscule size and vesicular structure.
• De Duve’s research illuminated the presence of oxidases within peroxisomes that produce H2O2 and catalase enzymes that subsequently neutralize H2O2. Owing to their pivotal role in peroxide metabolism, the term “peroxisomes” was coined.
• Peroxisomes are especially prevalent in cells of detoxifying organs, such as the liver and kidneys. In the liver, they participate in the metabolism of bile acid intermediates and are instrumental in lipid storage, degradation, and synthesis. Their presence and function underscore their significance in cellular health and metabolic processes.

Peroxisome Lecture Video

Definition of Peroxisome

Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells involved in lipid metabolism and the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, converting harmful molecules like hydrogen peroxide into benign substances such as water and oxygen.

Structure of Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are subcellular organelles, typically ranging from 0.1 to 1 µm in diameter, found ubiquitously in eukaryotic cells, encompassing both plant and animal cells.
• These organelles are characterized by their spherical shape and are encased by a single lipid-protein biomembrane. This membrane delineates the granular matrix from the cytoplasm, creating a specialized compartment that fosters a myriad of metabolic reactions essential for cellular function.
• The structural integrity of peroxisomes is maintained by a phospholipid bilayer, which is predominantly synthesized in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Embedded within this bilayer are numerous membrane-bound proteins.
• The enzymes crucial for lipid metabolism, which are housed within the peroxisome, are synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytosol. These enzymes are then selectively imported into the peroxisome, guided by specific signaling sequences, with Peroxisome Target Sequence 1 being the most prevalent.
• Interestingly, the size, shape, and protein composition of peroxisomes can vary based on the cell type and its environmental conditions. For instance, in certain yeast species, the availability of glucose can influence the size and number of peroxisomes.
• When provided with an ample glucose supply, only a few small peroxisomes might be present. However, when exposed to long-chain fatty acids as the primary carbon source, the yeast may exhibit a significant increase in peroxisome size and number.
• It’s noteworthy that peroxisomes do not possess their own DNA. Instead, the proteins they house are translated in the cytosol and subsequently transported into the organelle. As proteins and lipids are continually incorporated, the peroxisome enlarges and eventually divides, yielding two distinct organelles. This dynamic nature underscores the adaptability and essential role of peroxisomes in cellular metabolism.

Peroxisomal Enzymes

Peroxisomes are replete with a diverse array of enzymes, with approximately 60 distinct enzymes identified within their matrix. These enzymes play a pivotal role in facilitating oxidation reactions, culminating in the generation of hydrogen peroxide. Among the primary groups of enzymes housed within peroxisomes are:

1. Urate oxidase: This enzyme is instrumental in the oxidative breakdown of urate, a process integral to purine metabolism.
2. D-amino acid oxidase: This particular enzyme is responsible for the oxidation of D-amino acids, contributing to amino acid metabolism.
3. Catalase: A crucial enzyme, catalase acts to decompose hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, thereby mitigating the potential cytotoxic effects of hydrogen peroxide within the cell.

These enzymes underscore the essential metabolic functions of peroxisomes, emphasizing their significance in cellular biochemistry and homeostasis.

Peroxisome Biogenesis

Peroxisomes are vital cellular organelles that play a pivotal role in various metabolic functions. The efficacy of these functions is intrinsically linked to the accurate biogenesis of peroxisomes and the proteins they contain. Unlike other organelles, peroxisomes do not possess nucleic acids. Instead, all proteins found in peroxisomes are encoded by nuclear genes and are synthesized in the cytoplasm. These proteins are then posttranslationally imported into the peroxisome.

Peroxisomal Membrane Proteins (PMPs) and Their Biogenesis

PMPs are integral to the peroxisome membrane and are characterized by cis-acting peroxisomal targeting signals, known as mPTSs. These signals are multipartite and encompass at least one transmembrane domain and a binding site for PEX19, a chaperone and import receptor for PMPs. PEX19 plays a dual role: it binds to newly formed PMPs in the cytoplasm, ensuring their solubility, and subsequently transports them to the peroxisome’s outer surface by interacting with PEX3. The exact mechanism of PMP import post this step remains elusive, but it is believed to involve the detachment of PMPs from PEX19 and their integration into the peroxisome membrane.

Peroxisomal Matrix Proteins and Their Biogenesis

In contrast to PMPs, peroxisomal matrix proteins, which encompass the majority of peroxisomal enzymes, need to traverse the peroxisome membrane. These proteins are equipped with specific peroxisomal targeting signals (PTSs), either PTS1 or PTS2. PTS1 is a tripeptide located at the C-terminus, while PTS2 is a nonapeptide situated near the N-terminus. These signals are recognized and bound by their respective receptors, PEX5 for PTS1 and PEX7 for PTS2. These receptors then transport the enzymes to the peroxisome, facilitated by the docking factor PEX14. The import process involves several other peroxins that aid in the translocation of these enzymes into the peroxisome and the subsequent recycling of the receptors.

Diseases Linked to Peroxisome Biogenesis

Defects in the genes responsible for PMP or peroxisomal matrix protein import can lead to Zellweger syndrome, a severe inherited disorder marked by a complete loss of peroxisomal metabolic functions and various neurological, hepatic, and renal abnormalities. Mutations in PEX7 result in a distinct disorder known as rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (RCDP) type 1, characterized by specific defects in peroxisomal functions.

Peroxisome Division and Formation

Peroxisomes predominantly form through the budding or scission of existing peroxisomes. This process involves peroxins from the PEX11 family and the GTPase DLP1. However, under certain conditions, peroxisomes can also form de novo. This process, observed under specific laboratory conditions, is believed to involve vesicle release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that matures into functional peroxisomes.

In conclusion, peroxisome biogenesis is a complex process that ensures the proper functioning of various metabolic pathways within the cell. Understanding this process is crucial, given its implications in various genetic disorders and its role in cellular metabolism.

Division and Proliferation of Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes, vital cellular organelles, undergo intricate division and proliferation processes. Two primary models have been proposed to elucidate the division of peroxisomes. The first model suggests that peroxisomes originate by budding and subsequent fission from pre-existing peroxisomes, a mechanism potentially predominant in mitotically dividing cells. The alternative model posits that peroxisomes emerge either de novo or from a distinct membrane reservoir, possibly the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This reservoir then undergoes a series of biogenesis intermediates to form mature peroxisomes. This latter model might be more relevant to proliferative peroxisomes or the regeneration of peroxisomes in pex mutants upon gene complementation.

In the yeast species, Yarrowia lipolytica, the initiation of peroxisome division is internally signaled. This signal might be generated through the remodeling of peroxisomal membrane lipids or via metabolites produced by peroxisomal fatty-acid β-oxidation.

To understand the intricacies of peroxisome biogenesis, several proteins play pivotal roles:

Proteins Facilitating Peroxisome Formation from the ER:

• Pex3p: An integral peroxisomal membrane protein (PMP) conserved across species, essential for the assembly and stability of the RING-domain subcomplex.
• Pex16p: Found in Y. lipolytica, this protein aids in the import of specific peroxisomal proteins and inhibits peroxisome division.
• Pex19p: A farnesylated protein that acts as a chaperone and import factor for newly synthesized integral PMPs.

Matrix Protein Import Proteins:

• Pex1p: An ATPase involved in peroxisome targeting signal (PTS) receptor recycling during import.
• Pex2p: An integral PMP with a RING domain, involved in receptor recycling.
• Pex5p: The primary receptor for PTS1, interacting with multiple peroxins.
• Pex6p: An ATPase that collaborates with Pex1p for PTS receptor recycling.

Proteins Regulating Peroxisome Size and Number:

• Pex11p: Essential for maintaining normal peroxisome abundance and division.
• Pex25p, Pex27p, Pex28p, Pex29p: These proteins play roles in modulating peroxisome size, number, and distribution.

Peroxisome Inheritance Proteins:

• Inp1p and Inp2p: Fungal PMPs that play roles in peroxisome retention and movement, respectively.
• Myo2p: An actin-based motor protein facilitating peroxisome movement.

In essence, the division and proliferation of peroxisomes are orchestrated by a complex interplay of proteins, ensuring the proper functioning and distribution of these organelles within the cell.

Peroxisomal Fatty Acid b-Oxidation

Peroxisomal fatty acid β-oxidation is a conserved metabolic process observed across a diverse range of organisms, from yeast and plants to invertebrates and vertebrates. Notably, while yeast and plants rely solely on the peroxisomal pathway for fatty acid β-oxidation, lacking a mitochondrial counterpart, vertebrates possess both peroxisomal and mitochondrial pathways.

The core process of peroxisomal fatty acid β-oxidation comprises four fundamental steps:

1. Acyl-CoA Oxidation: The initial step involves the oxidation of fatty acyl-CoA to form 2-enoyl-CoA. This reaction is facilitated by acyl-CoA oxidase, which simultaneously reduces molecular oxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). This distinctive feature differentiates the peroxisomal pathway from the mitochondrial counterpart, with the latter conserving the energy from acyl-CoA dehydrogenation for ATP synthesis.
2. Hydration of 2-enoyl-CoAs: The next phase sees the conversion of 2-enoyl-CoAs to 3-hydroxyacyl-CoAs, a reaction catalyzed by enoyl-CoA hydratase. In peroxisomes, this enzyme often exists as part of multifunctional proteins, such as the D-bifunctional protein.
3. Dehydrogenation of 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA: This step involves the NAD⁺-dependent dehydrogenation of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoAs, producing 3-ketoacyl-CoA and NADH.
4. Thiolase-Catalyzed Cleavage: The final step involves the cleavage of 3-ketoacyl-CoAs by thiolase, resulting in the release of acetyl-CoA or propionyl-CoA for certain branched-chain fatty acids.

Beyond these core reactions, peroxisomes house several auxiliary proteins essential for fatty acid oxidation:

• Metabolite Transporters: These proteins, such as the PXA1/2 in yeast and ABCD1–4 in humans, facilitate the transport of acyl-CoA molecules from the cytoplasm into the peroxisome.
• Acyl-CoA Synthetases: These enzymes activate specific free fatty acids to their acyl-CoA derivatives.
• ATP/ADP Carriers: These support the intraperoxisomal activation of certain fatty acids.
• Enzymes for Unsaturated Fatty Acid Oxidation: These include 3-enoyl-CoA isomerase and dienoyl-CoA reductase, which aid in the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.
• Racemase Activities: These convert certain branched-chain fatty acids to forms that can be degraded by peroxisomal enzymes.
• Acetyl-CoA Export Mechanisms: These transport acetyl groups from the peroxisome to the cytoplasm, a prerequisite for their mitochondrial oxidation.
• Metabolite Shuttles: These regenerate the required NAD⁺ and transport reduced electron carriers out of the peroxisome.

In mammals, the peroxisomal fatty acid β-oxidation pathway primarily oxidizes very long-chain fatty acids, bile acid precursors, and certain branched-chain fatty acids. In contrast, in yeast and plants, this pathway is the sole mechanism for converting fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, playing a pivotal bioenergetic role, especially during specific growth phases or conditions.

In summary, peroxisomal fatty acid β-oxidation is a crucial metabolic pathway, with its role and significance varying across different organisms. The pathway’s intricacies and associated proteins underline its importance in cellular energy metabolism and homeostasis.

Peroxisomal Contributions to Bile Acid Synthesis

• Peroxisomes play a pivotal role in the metabolism of specific substrates, notably the cholesterol-derived bile acid precursors, dihydroxycholestanoic acid (DHCA) and trihydroxycholestanoic acid (THCA). These substrates are unique in that they are exclusively metabolized by the peroxisomal β-oxidation enzymes.
• DHCA and THCA, characterized as large, lipophilic, 2-methyl branched-chain fatty acids, undergo a series of metabolic transformations within the peroxisome. Initially, these fatty acids are esterified with Coenzyme A (CoA). Following esterification, they are transported into the peroxisomal matrix. Within this matrix, they undergo β-oxidation, resulting in the production of propionyl-CoA and cholyl-CoA.
• Furthermore, peroxisomes house a specific enzyme known as bile acyl-CoA: amino acid acyltransferase. This enzyme facilitates the transfer of the cholic acid moiety onto amino acids, specifically taurine or glycine. This enzymatic action culminates in the formation of bile acids. These newly synthesized bile acids are then transported out of the peroxisome, entering the cytoplasm. From the cytoplasm, they are directed into the bile duct, eventually reaching the digestive tract.
• In essence, peroxisomes are integral to the synthesis and subsequent transport of bile acids, underscoring their significance in cholesterol metabolism and overall lipid homeostasis.

Peroxisomal Fatty Acid a-Oxidation

In the realm of cellular metabolism, both peroxisomal and mitochondrial β-oxidation systems collaboratively enable animals to metabolize a vast array of dietary fatty acids. However, specific dietary fatty acids, notably 3-methyl substituted ones such as phytanic acid, present resistance to β-oxidation. Despite this resistance, animal cells proficiently oxidize these fatty acids, primarily due to two distinct pathways:

1. The unique peroxisomal fatty acid α-oxidation pathway, which truncates phytanic acid by a single carbon, resulting in the formation of the 2-methyl branched-chain fatty acid, pristanic acid.
2. The combined efforts of the peroxisomal and mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation pathways, which further degrade pristanic acid into acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA units.

The fatty acid α-oxidation pathway is a complex, multistep process orchestrated by four pivotal peroxisomal enzymes:

1. Activation of Phytanic Acid: Phytanic acid undergoes activation to form phytanoyl-CoA, facilitated by a peroxisome-associated enzyme known as phytanoyl-CoA synthetase. The precise location of this enzyme remains a topic of discussion. If it resides on the peroxisome’s outer surface, a metabolite transporter, potentially from the ABCD1–4 family, might also be instrumental in the α-oxidation process.
2. Conversion by Dioxygenase: Within the peroxisomal matrix, the enzyme phytanoyl-CoA 2-hydroxylase, a type of dioxygenase, transforms phytanoyl-CoA into 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA. This reaction necessitates the presence of 2-oxoglutarate and oxygen.
3. Degradation by Lyase: The enzyme 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase degrades 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA, releasing pristanal and formyl-CoA. The latter spontaneously disintegrates, producing free CoA and formate, which eventually gets released as CO2.
4. Oxidation of Pristanal: Pristanal undergoes oxidation via pristanal dehydrogenase, an NAD⁺-dependent process, resulting in pristanic acid. This acid is then activated to pristanoyl-CoA, which subsequently undergoes peroxisomal fatty acid β-oxidation.

It’s noteworthy that the mammalian peroxisomal β-oxidation pathway only partially truncates its substrates. This is evident in the oxidation of pristanoyl-CoA, where three rounds of peroxisomal β-oxidation produce acetyl-CoA, two propionyl-CoA molecules, and the branched-chain fatty acid 4,8-dimethylnonanoyl-CoA. This fatty acid is then exported from the peroxisome for further mitochondrial oxidation. The exact mechanism of this export, whether through free fatty acid, a carnitine ester, or a combination of both, remains to be elucidated.

Ether–Phospholipid Biosynthesis

Phospholipids, integral components of cellular membranes, predominantly possess a classic structure grounded on glycerol-3-phosphate esterified with fatty acids at its 1 and 2 carbons. Yet, a notable fraction, approximately 15–20% of phospholipids in humans, deviates from this norm. These unique phospholipids feature a fatty alcohol linked to the 1 carbon via an ether bond. The synthesis of these ether-linked phospholipids is orchestrated by a series of enzymes distributed across the peroxisome, cytoplasm, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

The foundational steps of this biosynthetic pathway are rooted in the peroxisome, where enzymes facilitate the production of alkyl-dihydroxyacetone phosphate (alkyl-DHAP), the pivotal precursor for ether–phospholipid synthesis. The primary stages encompass:

1. Glycerol-3-Phosphate Oxidation: A peroxisomal enzyme, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, facilitates the conversion of glycerol-3-phosphate into DHAP.
2. Formation of 1-Acyl-DHAP: Within the peroxisome, DHAP acyltransferase mediates the synthesis of 1-acyl-DHAP, utilizing DHAP and a fatty acyl-CoA. The resultant acyl-DHAP is a crucial substrate for subsequent alkyl-DHAP synthesis.
3. Reduction of Acyl-CoAs: Situated on the peroxisome’s exterior, the NADPH-dependent fatty acyl-CoA reductase transforms acyl-CoAs into fatty alcohols. These fatty alcohols serve as essential substrates for alkyl-DHAP production.
4. Synthesis of 1-Alkyl-DHAP: The enzyme alkyldihydroxyacetone phosphate synthase, residing within the peroxisome, orchestrates the formation of 1-alkyl-DHAP. This reaction involves 1-acyl-DHAP and a fatty alcohol, simultaneously liberating a free fatty acid.
5. Formation of 1-Alkyl-G3P: The alkyl-DHAP reductase, present on the cytoplasmic facet of both peroxisomes and the ER, oversees the NAD⁺-dependent synthesis of 1-alkyl-glycerol-3-phosphate (1-alkyl-G3P).

Subsequent stages, localized within the ER, witness the transformation of 1-alkyl-G3P into 1-alkyl-2-acyl-G3P. Following several intricate steps, this compound eventually gives rise to 1-alkyl-2-acyl-glycerophosphatidylcholine and 1-alkyl-2-acyl-glycerophosphatidylethanolamine. These compounds collectively constitute the majority of ether-linked phospholipids in mammalian cells.

Human Peroxisome-Related Disorders

Peroxisomes are essential organelles in eukaryotic cells, playing pivotal roles in various metabolic processes. Consequently, defects in peroxisomal function can lead to a spectrum of disorders in humans. Currently, approximately 20 known peroxisomal disorders have been identified, many of which have severe outcomes. These disorders can be broadly categorized into two groups: those affecting peroxisomal metabolism and those impacting peroxisome biogenesis.

Peroxisomal Metabolic Disorders:

1. Pseudoneonatal Adrenoleukodystrophy: This disorder is characterized by a deficiency in the Acyl-CoA oxidase (Acox1) enzyme.
2. Multifunctional Protein 2 (MFP2) Deficiency: MFP2 is involved in the β-oxidation of very long-chain and 2-methyl-branched fatty acids.
3. Peroxisomal Thiolase Deficiency: This results from a deficiency in the 3-Ketoacyl-CoA thiolase enzyme.
4. X-linked Adrenoleukodystrophy: Caused by a defect in the ALDp transporter.
5. Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata Types 2 & 3: These are due to deficiencies in the Dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase and Alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate synthase enzymes, respectively.
6. Refsum’s Disease (Classical): This disorder arises from a deficiency in the Phytanoyl-CoA hydroxylase enzyme.
7. Glutaric Aciduria Type 3: Caused by a defect in the Glutaryl-CoA oxidase enzyme.
8. Hyperoxaluria Type I: This results from a deficiency in the Alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase enzyme.
9. Acatalasaemia: Caused by a deficiency in the Catalase enzyme.
10. Mevalonic Aciduria: Arises from a deficiency in the Mevalonate kinase enzyme.
11. Di/Trihydroxycholestanoic Acidaemia: This disorder is due to a defect in the Trihydroxycholestanoyl-CoA oxidase (Acox2) enzyme.
12. Adult-onset Sensory Motor Neuropathy: Caused by a deficiency in the 2-Methylacyl-CoA racemase enzyme.

Peroxisome Biogenesis Disorders:

1. Zellweger Syndrome: This disorder can be attributed to defects in multiple PEX genes, including PEX1, PEX2, PEX3, PEX5, PEX6, PEX10, PEX12, PEX13, PEX16, and PEX19.
2. Neonatal Adrenoleukodystrophy: This condition is linked to defects in several PEX genes, such as PEX1, PEX5, PEX6, PEX10, PEX12, and PEX13.
3. Infantile Refsum’s Disease: This disorder is associated with defects in multiple PEX genes, including PEX1, PEX2, PEX5, and PEX12.
4. Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata Type I: This condition arises from a defect in the PEX7 gene.
5. Neonatal Microcephaly: Caused by a defect in the DLP1 gene.

Understanding the functions of PEX genes in simpler organisms, such as yeasts, can provide insights into human peroxisomal disorders. Furthermore, mouse models for these disorders hold promise for advancing our comprehension of disease symptoms, facilitating accurate diagnoses, and paving the way for potential therapeutic interventions.

Functions of Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes, integral organelles within eukaryotic cells, perform a myriad of vital functions that are indispensable for cellular homeostasis and metabolism. These functions include:

1. Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism: Peroxisomes house enzymes that are pivotal for both the generation and detoxification of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a reactive oxygen species. This dual role ensures that while H2O2 is produced for specific metabolic reactions, its accumulation is kept in check to prevent cellular damage.
2. Fatty Acid Oxidation: Peroxisomes play a central role in the oxidation of fatty acids. In animal cells, this process transpires in both peroxisomes and mitochondria. However, in plants and yeasts, it is predominantly a peroxisomal function. The oxidation process is concomitant with H2O2 production, which is subsequently neutralized by the catalase enzyme, underscoring the organelle’s role in energy metabolism.
3. Lipid Biosynthesis: Peroxisomes, in conjunction with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), are involved in the synthesis of lipids such as cholesterol and dolichol. In the liver, peroxisomes facilitate the conversion of cholesterol into bile acids. Additionally, they harbor enzymes essential for the synthesis of plasmalogens, phospholipids that are crucial for the proper functioning of cardiac and neural tissues.
4. Germination of Seeds: During seed germination, peroxisomes are responsible for converting stored fatty acids into carbohydrates. This transformation is vital, providing the necessary energy and substrates for the burgeoning growth of the germinating plant.
5. Photorespiration: In leaves, especially green ones, peroxisomes collaborate with chloroplasts to execute the process of photorespiration, a metabolic pathway that operates when the concentration of carbon dioxide is low.
6. Degradation of Purines: Peroxisomes are involved in the catabolism of molecules such as purines, polyamines, and certain amino acids. Enzymes like uric acid oxidase play a significant role in this degradation process.
7. Bioluminescence: In fireflies, peroxisomes contain the enzyme luciferase, which facilitates bioluminescence. This luminescent property aids fireflies in tasks such as mate selection and prey capture.

In summary, peroxisomes are multifunctional organelles that contribute significantly to various metabolic pathways, ensuring the proper functioning and survival of eukaryotic cells.

Practice Quiz

What is the primary function of peroxisomes in cells?
a) Protein synthesis
b) DNA replication
c) Breakdown of fatty acids
d) Cell division

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Which enzyme is responsible for breaking down hydrogen peroxide in peroxisomes?
a) Catalase
b) Peroxidase
c) Lipase
d) Amylase

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Which of the following is NOT synthesized in peroxisomes?
a) Bile acids
b) Plasmalogens
c) Steroid hormones
d) Phospholipids

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Peroxisomes are primarily involved in the metabolism of:
a) Glucose
b) Amino acids
c) Fatty acids
d) Nucleic acids

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Which organelle is closely related to peroxisomes in terms of origin?
a) Mitochondria
b) Endoplasmic reticulum
c) Golgi apparatus
d) Lysosomes

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Peroxisomes are most abundant in which type of cells?
a) Muscle cells
b) Nerve cells
c) Liver cells
d) Red blood cells

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Which of the following diseases is associated with a defect in peroxisome function?
a) Alzheimer’s disease
b) Zellweger syndrome
c) Parkinson’s disease
d) Cystic fibrosis

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Which enzyme is responsible for the initial steps in the synthesis of plasmalogens in peroxisomes?
a) Acyl-CoA oxidase
b) Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase
c) Catalase
d) Peroxidase

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Peroxisomes are involved in the detoxification of which of the following compounds?
a) Alcohol
b) Glucose
c) Amino acids
d) Nucleotides

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Which of the following is a unique feature of peroxisomes compared to other cellular organelles?
a) They contain DNA
b) They can self-replicate
c) They lack a membrane
d) They are involved in lipid synthesis

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FAQ

References

• Van der Klei, I. J. (2014). Peroxisomes. Pathobiology of Human Disease, 108–113. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386456-7.01407-6
• Joshi, S., & Subramani, S. (2013). Peroxisomes. Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry, 425–430. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-378630-2.00503-x
• Stott, W. T. (1993). Peroxisomes. Handbook of Hazardous Materials, 545–561. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-189410-8.50051-1
• Gould, S. J. (2013). Peroxisomal Metabolism. Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry, 413–417. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-378630-2.00104-3
• Cooper GM. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Peroxisomes. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9930/