Overview of Plant Cells

Animals, fungi and protists are composed of at least one eukaryotic cell. However archaea and bacteria are composed of only one prokaryotic cell. Plant cells differ from cells belonging to other organisms due to their cell walls, chloroplasts and the central vacuole.

Chloroplasts are organelles which are vital to the functioning of plants. These are the organelles which perform photosynthesis, utilising the energy of the sun to create glucose. When they do this the cells utilize carbon dioxide and release oxygen.

Other living things, like animals, depend on glucose and oxygen to live. Plants are classified as autotrophic since they create themselves food, and don’t need to eat other living organisms. In particular plants are photoautotrophic as they utilize sunlight’s energy to create glucose. Organisms that eat plants as well as other animals are also considered heterotrophic.

The other parts of the plant cell, including the cell wall and the central vacuole, work for the purpose of giving the cells a firm structure. The cell stores liquid in its central vacuole that expands the vacuole onto cells’ sides. Cell walls then push into the wall of the other cells, generating the force that is called turgor pressure. Animals rely on skeletons for structure, the pressure of turgor in plant cells helps plants increase their height and get greater amounts of sunlight.

Definition of plant cell

The plant cells constitute eukaryotic cells which can be found in green plants, photosynthesis-based eukaryotes belonging to the family of Plantae which means that they have a membrane-bound nucleus. They possess a range of cell organelles bound to membranes which perform a variety of specific tasks to ensure the proper working of the plant cell.

Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic, they both have a defined nucleus as well as organelles bound to membranes. They share a number of common characteristics like the nuclear membrane of the cell mitochondria, Golgi apparatus endoplasmic-reticulum, ribosomes and much more.

But, they do have obvious distinct features. First, they have cells with a wall of cells that covers the cell membrane, while animals do not. Plant cells also have two organelles that animal cells do not have the chloroplasts as well as a huge central vacuole.

The additional organelles enable plants to create an upright structure, without the requirement for the Skeleton (cell walls and the central vacuole) in addition to allowing them to create the food they need through photosynthetic processes (chloroplasts).

Plant Cell Types

There are five kinds of tissues created by plant cells, each of which has distinct purposes. Collenchyma and parenchyma as well as sclerenchyma are all tissues of plants, which means they have a single type of cell. On the other hand, xylem as well as the phloem have a mixture of different cell types. They are often referred to as complicated tissues.

• Parenchyma tissue: Parenchyma tissue comprises the majority of the cells found in plants. They are present in the leaves and perform photosynthesis as well as cellular respiration as well as various metabolic functions. They also store substances such as proteins and starches, and play an important role in repairs to wounds.
• Collenchyma tissue: The Collenchyma tissue is a support for the growing parts of plants. They are long, have thick cell walls and are able to grow and change shape as the plant develops.
• Sclerenchyma tissue: Sclerenchyma tissue has hard cells which serve as the primary support cells in the parts of a plant which have stopped growth. The cells of the Sclerenchyma tissue are dead and possess dense wall cells.
• Xylem cells: The cells of the Xylem transport water, as well as a few other nutrients through a plant from the roots to leaves and the stem.
• Phloem cells: Phloem cells carry nutrients produced through photosynthesis to every part of the plant. They also transport sap which is a watery solution rich in sugars.

Plant Cell Diagram/Structure of Plant cell

The majority of plant cells are larger than animals’ cells. They generally are rectangular or cube-like in shape. Plant cells also contain structural organelles that aren’t found in animals’ cells, including the cells’ vacuoles, the cell wall, and the plastids, e. Chloroplast. Animal cells also have structures that aren’t found in plant cells, like cilia, flagella, lysosomes as well as centrioles.

The basic characteristics that define the cell of a plant include pectin, hemicellulose, and cellulose as plastids, which play an important role in photosynthesis as well as the storage of starch. They are also huge vacuoles which regulate the pressure of the cell’s turgor. Additionally, they have a distinctive cell division process in which it is possible to form the Phragmoplast (a complex that is made up of microtubules and microfilaments and the endoplasmic and reticulum) which all join in cytokinesis to create the cells of the daughter.

The organelles have a similar structure to animal organelles that perform the same functions that are found in the human cell. Organelles perform a variety of functions that range from generating enzymes and hormones to supplying energy for the plant cell.

Cells of plants have DNA that assists in creating new cells, thereby accelerating the growth rate of the plant. DNA is contained in the nucleus. It is an enclosed membrane that is located in the middle inside the cell. In addition, the plant cell includes various organelles within the cell that perform various tasks to ensure that the cell is able to sustain its metabolism growth, development, and growth.

Plant cell organelles

Organelles of the plant cell comprise Cell membrane, Cell wall Cytoskeleton Plasmodesmata, Chloroplast, Vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, peroxisomes Nucleus, Nucleolus

Plant Cell Wall

It is the tough outer layer of the cell. It plays an important function in guarding against the damage to the plant and as well as giving it its shape.

Structure of plant cell wall

• It is a specific matrix which covers the entire area of the cell. Each cells in the plant have a wall that is the most significant difference between plants and animal cell.
• Cell walls are composed of two layers: an inner lamella and the primary cell wall, and sometimes, a secondary wall.
• The middle lamella functions as a securing layer that connects the walls of the adjacent cells.
• The wall of the primary is composed of cellulose, which is the substance that supports cells that are multiplying and maturing. It is smaller and more flexible as contrasted to the cells that have achieved complete maturation. The thinner wall allows the cell wall to grow.
• After cell growth has reached its maximum Some plants eliminate from the wall. For the majority thicken their primary wall or create another layer of rigidity, but it is arranged in a different way, which is known as secondary walls.
• The second wall provides permanent , stiff mechanical support to the plant cell, specifically the wood-based support.
• In contrast to the constant stiffness and load-bearing capability of the thick secondary walls, they are not as rigid and have a greater capacity for load-bearing.

The function of the plant cell wall

The main function of the cell wall can be described as structural and mechanical which is extremely efficient in helping the plant cells. The functions of the cell wall include:

• The cell is provided with mechanical protection, and protecting the cell from chemically harsh environmentcreated by the second wall layer.
• It’s semipermeable, which permits in and outflow of various substances, including molecular nutrition, water and minerals.
• It also serves as an extremely rigid structure to help stabilize the plant and create various structures, like the leaves and stems of the plant.
• It also offered a location for the storage of certain elements , like the regulator molecules that identify bacteria in the plant, thus preventing growth of tissue that is diseased.
• The walls that are thin serve as structural and functional layers when cells’ vacuoles fill with water, causing an adsorption pressure on the cell’s walls which maintains the plants stiffness and stopping vegetation from losing fluids and from withering.

The building block is the foundational component composed of cellulose fibers comprising both the wall’s primary as well as secondary even though they have different structures and compositions. Cellulose is a matrix of polysaccharides that provides tensile strength to cells. This strength is encased in the highly concentrated matrix made up of glycoproteins and water.

Plant cytoskeleton

This is a web of filaments and microtubules which play a major role in keeping the shape of the plant cell and providing the cell’s support in its cytoplasm and maintaining its structural structure. The tubules and filaments extend throughout the cell and into the cell’s cells cytoplasm. Apart from providing support to the cell and maintaining it and cytoplasm of the cell it also plays a role in the transport of cell cells, cell division and cell signaling.

Structure of the plant cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is an important component of the cell structure, providing the support system for these cells, as well as the maintenance elements and transport roles in the body. These functions are described in the form of the cytoskeleton, which comprises three filaments, i.e. Actin filament (microfilaments) microtubules, microtubules and intermediate filaments.

• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are made up of a web of fibers that are in a parallel fashion to one another. They are comprised of the tiny strands of actin proteins thus the name actin filaments. They are the tiniest filaments of the cytoskeleton that have a the size of 7 nanometers.
• Intermediate filaments measure a diameter of between 8 and 12 nm. They are located between actin filaments and microtubules. The function of these filaments in plant cells isn’t completely understood.
• Microtubules are hollow tube made from tubulins and have a an average dimension of 23 nm. They are the biggest filament, in comparison to the two filaments.

Functions of the plant cytoskeleton

• Microfilaments play a principal role in the division of the cell’s cytoplasm through a process called cytokinesis. It results in the formation of two cells. They also play a role in cytoplasmic stream, a process that allows cytosol to circulation throughout the cell, carrying cells’ organelles and nutrients.
• Intermediate Filaments: The intermediary filaments’ function in cell isn’t fully known, however it does have a role in maintaining cell’s shape, provide structural support, and retaining the tension inside the cell.
• Microtubules: Differently from the role of the microtubule during cell division in the animal cell the plant cell utilizes microtubules to move materials within the vell. They also play a role in the formation of the cell wall of the plant cell. wall.
• Other roles of the cytoskeleton within plants are:
  • It helps by providing shape to the cell and maintaining the shape of the cell and transporting some organelles of the cell, molecules and nutrients through the cell’s the cytoplasm.
  • It also plays an important role with respect to Mitotic cell division.
  • In short it is said that the cytoskeleton forms the structure that makes up the cell. Therefore, it keeps the cell’s structure intact as well as provides support for cell structure and defines the cell’s the cell’s structure.

Plant Cell (Plasma) membrane

Structure of the plant cell (plasma) membrane

• This is a bilipid-based membrane composed of carbohydrate subunits and protein with a distinct semi-permeability coefficient.
• It surrounds the cell’s cytoplasm, thereby enclosing the contents.

Functions of the plant cell (plasma) membrane

• It separates the cells’ cytoplasm from its wall.
• It is a selective permeability, which controls the content that moves into and out of cells.
• It also shields cells from damage caused by external forces and gives assistance and stabilization to cells.
• It contains embedded proteins that are bonded to carbohydrates and lipids, which are located within the membrane. They are that are used to carry cellular proteins.

Plasmodesmata of the Plant Cell

The microscopic channel is one that aid in the communication and transportation of materials between plants cells. They connect the plant cell spaces, allowing intracellular movement of minerals, nutrients, water along with other molecules. They also facilitate the signaling of cells’ molecules. There are two kinds of plasmodesmata.

1. Primary plasmodesmata, formed during cell division.
2. Secondary plasmodesmata, formed between mature plant cells.

Primary plasmodesmata develop when a portion of the endoplasmic membrane is captured in the middle layer in the process of creating the cell wall. is processed in the course of cell division. When they are formed they establish a link between adjacent cells, and at the site of connection they create thin pits that are referred to as pits in the walls. The plasmodesmata can be inserted into mature cells between their cell walls, and they are known as secondary plasmodesmata. They are present in algal and plant cells, which are developing independently. Plasmodesmata structure is controlled by the callose-like polymer produced in cytokinesis of cells.

Structure of plasmodesmata of plant cells

Plasmodesmata are 50-60 nm. They are composed of three distinct layers i.e. cell membranes, plasma, and cytoplasmic sleeves, and desmotubules. These layers can increase the thickness of the cell wall to around 90nm.

• Plasma membrane – it’s an extension of the plasmalemma composed of phospholipids in a layers.
• Cytoplasmic sleeves – Cytoplasmic sleeves are fluid-filled spaces that are enclosed by the plasmalemma, forming an unending pouch in the cytosol.
• Desmotubules – Desmotubules are flat tubes that originate from the endoplasmic retina, connecting two cells.

Functions of the plasmodesmata

• Transport of transcription proteins, small units of RNA viral genomes, and mRNA viruses from one cells to the next. Like the movement of the MP-30 proteins from the Tobacco mosaic virus, which binds the viral genome , moving it from an infected cell to a uninfected cells, via the plasmodesmata.MP-30 is believed to be a binding agent to the virus’s genome and transfer it from cells infected to uninfected cells by the plasmodesmata.
• They control the cell sieve tubes using the assistance of cell companions.
• They are also utilized by phloem cell phloems to help transport nutrients.

The cytoplasm of the Plant Cell

• This is a gel-like matrix lying just below the cell membrane, housing most of the cell organelles.
• Its made up of water, enzymes, salts, organelles, and various organic molecules.
• It is not classified as one of the cell’s organelles because it doesn’t possess major roles except being a physical medium for holding and housing most of the complex cell’s interior organelles and being a medium for transporting and processing cell molecules for maintaining cell life.
• This is because some of these organelles have their own membranes that protect them, for example, the mitochondria and the Golgi bodies have at least 2 layers offering several functions to the organelles.
• The nucleus is not classified as part of the cytoplasm because of its double-layered centrally placed features and it has its own organelles and sub-organelles enclosed within it.
• The cytoplasm of the plant houses several organelles including Plastids, Mitochondria, Central vacuoles, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, Storage granules, lysosomes.

Plastids of plant cells

• Plastids are specialized organelles found specifically in plant and algal cells. They have a double-layered membrane.
• They have characteristic pigments that aid their mechanisms majorly in food processing and storage. these pigments also determine the color of the plant.
• Generally, plastids are used to manufacture and store food for plants double-membrane organelle which is found in the cells of plants and algae.
• Plastids have the ability to differentiate in between there forms and they can multiply rapidly by binary fission, depending on the cell, forming over 1000 plastid copies. In mature cells, plastids reduce in number to about 100 per mature cell.
• Plastids are derivates of proplastids (undifferentiated plastids), found in the meristematic tissues of the plant.

Development of plastids

Plastids associated with the inner membrane of the cell, existing as large protein-DNA complexes known as plastid nucleoids. The nucleoids have at least 10 copies of plastid DNA. Undifferentiated plastids are known as proplastids, and each proplastid has one nucleoid. These differentiate into the plastid which has more nucleoids found at the edges of the membranes bound to the inner envelope membrane.

During differentiation and development, the proplastid nucleoid undergoes remodeling, changing its shape, size and moves to a different location within the organelle. This mechanism of remodeling is mediated by the nucleoid proteins.

General functions of plastids

• They are actively involved in manufacturing food for the plant by photosynthesis due to the presence of chlorophyll pigment in the chloroplast.
• They also store food in the form of starch.
• They have the ability to synthesize fatty acids and terpenes that produces energy for the cell’s mechanisms.
• Palmitic acid, a component synthesized by chloroplasts is used in manufacturing the plant cuticle and waxy materials.

Types of Plastids

Plastids are classified based on their functions and the presence of the characteristic pigments. They include:

• Chloroplasts – green plastids used in photosynthesis
• Chromoplasts – colored plastids used to synthesize and store plant pigments
• Gerontoplasts – they dismantle photosynthetic apparatus during aging of plants
• Leucoplasts – they are colorless plastids used to manufacture terpene substance that protects the plants. they can differentiate, forming specialized plastids performing a variety of functions. i. e amyloplast. elaioplasts. proteinoplast, tannosomes.

The chloroplast of plant cell

Structure of the plant cell chloroplast

• They are the organelles that can be found in plant cells as well as algae cells.
• They’re oval in shape.
• They are composed of two membranes that cover the surface, i.e outer and inner membranes. An inner layer, known as the thylakoid membrane comprises two membranes.
• The outer membrane creates the chloroplast’s exterior lining while the inner membrane sits beneath the outer layer.
• The membranes are separated with a thin membranous spaces and inside the membrane is also a space referred to by the name stroma. The chloroplast is located within the stroma.
• The third layer, known as the thylakoid layer, which is heavily folded, giving its a flattened disc called thylakoids. They contain lots of chlorophyll and carotenoids as well as the electron transport chain, which is defined as the light-harvesting system utilized in photosynthesis.
• Thylakoids can be found stacked over one another in a stack known as Grana.

Functions of the plant cell chloroplast

• The chloroplast serves as the place of food synthesis in plants, through the mechanism of photosynthesis.
• Chloroplasts are a source of chlorophyll, an organic color that is green and absorbs light from the sun to perform photosynthesis.
• The process of photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide, water and light energy into nutrients to be used by plants.
• Thylakoids are composed of chlorophyll pigments and carotenoids to trap light energy that can be utilized in photosynthesis.
• The chlorophyll pigment gives plants their green color.

Chromoplast plastid of the plant cell

• Chromoplasts represent all the plant pigments synthesized and stored in plants. They can be present in a wide range of plants from all types of age.
• They typically arise by chloroplasts. This is the term used to refer to an area where all pigments that are to be stored and synthesized by the plant.
• Carotenoid pigments enable the color differentiation that is seen in fruits and flowers. Its color draws pollination processes by pollinators.

Structure of plant chromoplast

Microscopy shows that chromoplast is composed of at least four kinds:

• Proteic Stroma that contains Granules
• Amorphous pigment that has Granules
• The pigment and protein crystals
• Crystallised chloroplast

However, the more specific feature has been identified as classifying it further into five kinds:

• Globular chromoplasts, which appear as globules
• Crystalline chromoplast, which appears to have crystallized
• The Fibrillar Chromoplast that appears like fibers
• The tubular chromoplast looks like tubes
• Membranous Chromoplast

The chromoplasts reside amongst one another. However, some species have distinct types, like mangoes, for instance. They are characterized by their globular chromoplast. carrots have a crystallized chromoplast. tomatoes possess both crystallized and membranous chromoplasts due to the fact that they contain carotenoids.

Functions of plant chromoplast

• They impart distinct colors to plant parts like flowers, fruits leaves, roots and. The chromoplast and chloroplast are differentiated. allows the plant’s fruits to develop.
• Plant pigments are synthesized and stored, such as yellow pigments for xanthophyllsand red for carotenes. This provides both the plant as well as its constituents the hue.
• They attract pollinators through the color they create that aid to reproduce seeds of the plant.
• Chromoplats that are found in roots facilitate the accumulation of water-soluble elements, particularly in tubers, such as potatoes and carrots.
• They can cause color changes when plants age, such as the flowers, fruits and leaves.

Gerontoplast plastids of the plant cell

• The plastids in the leaves of plants are the organelles that cause the aging of cells. They differ from chloroplasts when plants begin to ageand cannot be used for photosynthesis anymore.
• They look like unstacked chloroplasts without a thylakoid-like membrane and accumulation of plastoglobuli utilized to produce fuel for cell.
• Gerontoplast’s primary purpose is to help in the aging process of plant’s components by with a distinct color to signify a deficiency in the photosynthesis.

Leucoplast plastids of the plant cell

• They are the plastids that are not pigmented. Because they do not have pigments of the chloroplasts, they are located in non-photosynthetic components of plants, such as the seeds and roots.
• They are smaller than chloroplasts that have morphologies that vary from and others appear to be ameboid in shape.
• They are connected to an intricate network of stromules that are found in the roots, flowers.
• They may be designed to store lipids, starch and proteins in huge amounts, hence they are referred to as amyloplasts, elaioplasts, and proteinoplast, according to the contents they store.

The main function of the leucoplast includes:

• Storage of lipids, starch, and proteins.
• They also help convert amino acids into fat acids.

Plant Vacuoles

• Plant cells have huge vacuoles in comparison to animal cells.
• The central vacuoles are located in the cells’ cytoplasmic layers of many different species However, they are more prominent in plants’ cells.

Structure of plant cell vacuoles

• They are huge and vesicles that are filled with fluids, inside the cell’s cytoplasm.
• It’s composed from 30% fluid of the cell’s volume, but could fill up to 90 percent of the intracellular space.

Functions of the central vacuole

• The central vacuoles help to adjust the size of cells and also to regulate the turgor pressure of cells of the plant, preventing the wilting and dying of the plant, particularly the leaves.
• If the cytoplasmic volume remains constant, the vacuoles are responsible large part of the size in the plant cells.
• The pressure of turgor is maintained when vacuoles are filled with water. If there isn’t any pressure on the turgor, this is an indication that the plant is losing water, and the plant’s leaves and stems become swollen.
• The plant cells flourish in extreme water levels (Hypotonic solutions) by absorbing water via osmosis and removing it from the surroundings, keeping the turgidity.
• A plant cell could be home to more than one type of vacuole. Certain vacuoles that are specialized, particularly ones that have a structural connection to lysosomes are stocked with enzymes that degrade and degrade macromolecules.
• Vacuoles also are responsible for the storage of cell nutrients which include sugars, organic salts as well as inorganic salts and pigments of the cellular, proteins and the lipids. These elements are stored until cells require these elements for its cellular metabolism. Vacuoles, for instance, hold seeds of proteins and opioid and metabolites.

Mitochondria of the plant cell

• Mitochondria are also referred to as chondriosomes. They’re the organelles that produce power for cells, and are often referred to as the energy source of cells.
• The mitochondria transform stored nutrients with oxygen’s help to create energy for the production in the case of (ATP )Adenosine TriPhosphate. Hence, they serve as the location for non-photosynthetic energy transmission.
• There are many mitochondria in the same plant cell.
• Mitochondria are present in large quantities within the pigment phloem within the plant cell and adjacent cells also are characterized by high metabolic rates. This is because they supply energy to support different mechanisms including the transportation and transport of foods through the tube sieve.
• While they carry out their functions mitochondria move continuously and change their forms, dependent on the interactions it has with the photosynthesis light trapped by photosynthesis, the level of cytosolic sugars as well as endoplasmic reticulum-mediated interactions.
• The mitochondria of plants and animals are very similar , with the exception of certain significant distinctions e.g. mitochondria in plants are deficient in the amount of nicotinamide dinucleotide (NADH) dehyg=drogenase, which is utilized to oxidize exogenous NADH that animal cells do not have.
• Mitochondria found in a wide variety of plants are extremely sensitive to inhibition of cyanide this is a feature that is not present in mitochondria from animals. On the other hand the b-oxidation pathway for fat acids is present in the mitochondria of animals, while plant mitochondria have the same enzymes. involved in the oxidation of fatty acids are found in the glycosomes.

Structure of plant mitochondria

• Plant cell mitochondria show high levels of pleomorphism.
• Mitochondria within green plant tissues are transparent organelles that are spherical-oval in shape. They have a sizes between 0.2to1.5mm
• The mitochondria are an intricate double-layered structure, i. an outer smooth membrane as well as an inner membrane complex which encloses mitochondrial matrix.
• Two layers of bilayers of lipids that are bonded by a hydrophobic fatty acid chain. They are a group of phospholipids that are active and have a strong attraction to the regions of fatty acids.
• They are able to see a mitochondrial gel-matrix within their central mass.
• The mitochondria also contain all the enzymes required for the Tricarboxylic cycle (TCA) including citrate synthetase, Pyruvateoxidase, Isocitrate Dehydrogenase, Malate Dehydrogenase, Malic Enzyme.

Functions of mitochondria in plants

• The mitochondria are the energy source of cells, and their main function is to produce energy to be used by cells.
• To exhibit a high level of metabolism as they provide energy for the unidentified mechanism that food mostly sucrose, are transported through the tube of sieve.
• The mitochondria contain the energy potential from food products that are produced by photosynthesis is can be used to fuel the metabolism of cells. For instance, the energy needed to create new cell contents as well as the production of enzymes and the movement of sugar molecules are generated by mitochondria.
• This is the basis of this cycle, known as the Tricarboxylic cycle (TCA), often referred to by The Krebs cycle. The TCA cycle makes use of the cells’ nutrients and transforms these into by-products that mitochondria use to produce energy. These processes occur in the membrane’s inner layer due to the fact that the membrane is bent into folds, referred to as the cristae. This is where you will find the proteins that make up the energy production system’s main cells, referred to in”the Electron Transport Chain (ETC). ETC is the major source of ATP production in the body.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the plant cell

• The ER is a continuous web of membranous sacs folded and housed within the cell’s cytosol. It is a complicated organelle, which occupies a large part of the cell’s cell cytosol.
• It is comprised of two distinct regions, the rough endoplasmic-reticulum (they contain ribosomes that are attached to their membranes on the surface) in addition to the smooth endoplasmic retina (they do not have the ribosomal attachment).
• The endoplasmic-reticulum, which is well-known for its high-dynamic roles in the eukaryotic cell are essential in the process of synthesizing the process, transporting, processing and storage of proteins, lipids along with chemical substances. These elements are utilized within the plant cell, as well as other organelles like the vacuoles as well as the apoplast (Plasma membrane).
• The space inside the ER is called the lumen.
• It is connected in the envelope of the nuclear, thereby providing an interface between the nucleus and cell cytosol. It is also providing a connection between cells and plasmodesmata tubesthat connect to plants cells. It makes up 10 percent of the cell’s cytosol.
• On the other hand rough ER typically appears as double membranes, which are covered with Ribosomes. Based on the uniform look of the rough ER it is likely comprises thin membrane sheets that are parallel, instead of the tubular sheets that are characteristic of smooth ER.
• These sacs that are flattened and interconnected are known as cisternae, also known as cisternal cell. Cisternal cells in tough ER are also known as luminal cells. Rough ER as well as The Golgi complex is made up of Cisternal cells.

Functions of the endoplasmic reticulum

Functions of the Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

• The Rough endoplasmic Reticulum is covered by ribosomes on the membrane on its surface, giving it an appearance of rough bumps. The main function of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is creating proteins. They are then transported from the cell to Golgi bodiesthat carry them to different parts of the plant to aid in the growth of the plant. They are made up made up of amino acids which are combined to create hormones, antibodies, digestive enzymes. The assembly is carried out through the ribosomes that attach on rough ER.
• Certain protein molecules are processed out of of the cell. They can also be transported to the Rough ER, where they get assemble into the correct dimensions and shape to allow cell use and are then conjugated with sugar elements to create the complete protein. These complexes are then transferred and distributed to different parts of the ER called the transitional ER to be packaged in cell vesicles , and later transferred onto the Golgi organelles that export them to other areas in the plants.
• Smooth ER is smooth because of the absence of surface the ribosomes. They appear as if they have sprung out from the interior of the rough endoplasmic retina. Its function is to synthesize the secretion and storage of fats, metabolizing carbohydrates, and the production of new membranes. This is further enhanced due to the presence of various enzymes attached to the surface.
• If a plant is able to generate enough energy to be utilized for photosynthesis but still has surplus lipids produced by cells The lipids kept in the Endoplasmic Reticulum in the format of triglycerides. When the cell requires additional energy sources, the triglycerides will be broken down to create the energy needed by cells.
• In a small way, the smooth endoplasmic retina has been implicated in the formation of the cellulose that forms the wall of cells.

Other functions of the endoplasmic reticulum in the plant cell

• Calcium plays a role in the development and growth of plant cells, which boosts the growth of plants, but in certain situations, calcium can be produced in excess which harms the plant cell through creating cell death. This is why the Endoplasmic Reticulum has been found to be linked to controlling the excessive calcium by converting it into calcium crystals of oxalate. Cells in the endoplasmic retina known as crystal idioblasts play a significant role in this conversion , and as well in the storage of these crystals.
• The ER can also function as sensors for plants. Plants can perform rapid movements in response to external stimuli, e. for example, temperatures, light intensity as well as atmospheric pressure. In these instances it is the ER acts as a mediator for the plant to react accordingly. For instance in Venus flytrap plants, they react in a way that is sensitive to touch. This is because of the presence of cortical endoplasmic retina (Cortex cells) which instantly react to touch.
  • When there is sensitiveness, the sensory receptors are able to move and accumulate in the top and lower part of cells. This makes them squeezed together, creating a limitation on them. This results in the release of calcium that has accumulated and, in turn, produces the sensation of touch.
  • The cortex ER is closely linked to the Plasmodesmata (a thin thread of cytoplasm which runs through the cells of plant cells adjacent to each other which allows them to communicate). The Plasmodesmata functions as a channel of communication between cells, thereby linking with motor cells, triggering cells and plant to react to the signals.

Ribosomes of the Plant Cell

• This organelle is responsible for the synthesis of proteins in the cell.
• It’s located in the cell’s cytoplasm in many quantities, as well as a few of them, known as functional ribosomes are located in the nucleus, mitochondria, and in the chloroplast in the cell.
• It’s composed of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and cell proteins
• The process of synthesis of proteins by ribosomes can be described as translation. This is done with the help of messenger RNA, which carries nucleotides to ribosomes.
• The ribosomes are then able to help to translate and interpret messages in forms of nucleotides which are contained in the mRNA.

Structure of ribosomes of the plant cell

• The structure of ribosomes is the same across every cell, however they are less so in cells that are prokaryotic. The ribosomes that are found in eukaryotic cells are huge and can be assessed using Svedberg units (S). S units are an indicator of the aggregation of massive molecules that are able to be dissolved by centrifugation. A high S value indicates a rapid sedimentation rate and hence more mass.
• Eukaryotic cell sedimentation in the 90s and prokaryotic cell debris was discovered during the 1970s.
• The mitochondrial ribosomes and chloroplasts are just as small as prokaryotic ribosomes.
• Naturally, ribosomes consist of two parts i. both large and small subunits that are both separated based on their rates of sedimentation according to their S units.
• Plant cells, as an eukaryotic cell, is equipped with complex ribosomes that are larger in size and have higher S units, and four rRNAs containing more than 80 proteins. The largest subunit contains the S unit from 1960s (28s rRNA 5.8s rRNA and 5s rRNA) and 42 protein. The smaller subunit has a sedimentation rate similar to the 40s, consisting of one RRNA along with 33 proteins.
• The ribosomal subunits are incorporated into the nucleolus of cells and are then transferred into the cytoplasm via nuclear pores. Cytoplasms are the main place for protein synthesis (translation).

Functions of ribosomes in plant cells

• With a subunit of the DNA, the main function of ribosomes is to produce proteins that are essential to cell functions, such as the cell repair.
• Ribosomes are catalysts for making strong binding of the extension of a portion using hydrolysis of peptidyl and peptidyl.
• The ribosomes in cells within the cytoplasm, are responsible for the conversion of genetic code to amino acid sequences, and for the formation of protein polymers derived from monomers of amino acids.
• They are also employed for protein folding and assembling.

Storage granules of plant cell

• They are the aggregates that reside within the cytoplasmic layer and the plastids of plant cells.
• They are inert organelles that can be found in plants, whose main function serves to hold starch.

Functions of storage granules in plant cell

• They are utilized to store food items.
• They store the carbohydrates needed by cells as carbohydrate polymers or glycogen.
• They store starch in granules that are used by the plant cell.
• They also power metabolisms within cells that involve chemical reactions, generating energy that can be used to make new materials for the cell.

Golgi bodies of plant cell

They are complex membrane-bound organelles located in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells and are often referred to as Golgi complex or Golgi complex. It is also known as the Golgi apparatus. They are located just beside the endoplasmic-reticulum, and are located near the nucleus.

Structure of the Golgi bodies in a plant cell

• Golgi bodies are held by microtubules in the cytoplasm and they are held together by a matrix of proteins.
• They consist of flattened pouches stacked together, referred to as Cisternae.
• Plant cells possess hundreds of Golgi bodies that move across the cell’s cytoskeleton in the endoplasmic-reticulum in comparison to the comparatively few that are found within the cells of animals (1-2).
• The Golgi body has three major compartments:
• Cis Golgi network, often referred to as Goods inwards. These are the cisternae that is close to the endoplasmic Reticulum. Also known as the cis Golgi Reticulum, this is the entrance point to the Golgi apparatus.
• The medial, or Golgi stack – this is the main processing area located at the center of the cisternae.
• Trans Golgi network is also called the Goods outwards Cisternae. It is the furthest endoplasmic reticulum of the cisternae from the endoplasmic retina.

Functions of the Golgi bodies in a plant cell

• The Golgi bodies perform a variety of tasks that they perform in addition to being an organelle of the endoplasmic reticulum and where they distribute cell-derived products to. They are located at the center of secretory pathway of cells, as a membranous system which is primarily used to distribute, process and store proteins to be used by plants during the stress response and other processes in leguminous plants like cereals, grains and other.
• The membranous sac compartments serves diverse chemical functions. When new proteins are transferred from the endoplasmic-reticulum via into the Golgi body, they move through the three compartments with each compartment causing a distinct reaction with the molecules altering them in different ways i.e.
• Letting the protein molecules go to the oligosaccharides chains
• Attachment of sugar moieties of various side chains proteins
• The addition of fatty acids and phosphate groups to elements, and the removal of monosaccharides.
• The cell vesicles carry proteins from the endoplasmic-reticulum to the cis compartment. There, the protein is altered, and then packaged into vesicles that then move the product onto the subsequent compartment. The process is made more efficient through the marking of the vesicle the specific protein group or phosphate molecules, which leads it to the next destination.
• After the vesicles are able to transport the lipid molecules and proteins then they Golgi body is responsible for the assembly of the protein and transferring it to its ultimate destination. This is facilitated due to being able to find enzymes inside the plant’s Golgi bodies that attach to sugar moieties proteins, encapsulating the proteins and then transporting these proteins to cell walls.

The nucleus of Plant Cell

• The nucleus is a information center of the cell. It is a highly specialized organelle that’s primary purpose is to conserve the cells’ genetic information.
• It also is responsible for coordination of the cell’s processes, which include cell metabolism cell growth, cell growth, the production of lipids and proteins, and in general, cell reproduction through cell division mechanisms.
• The nucleus is where cells store their’ genetic information, also known as Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and is located on Chromosomes (special threads that resemble strands of nucleic acids and proteins that are found in the nucleus and which carry genetic information).

Structure of the nucleus in plant cell

• The nucleus has a spherical shape and is centrally located inside the cell. It takes up approximately 10% of the cell’s volume.
• It’s a double-layered cellular membrane, also known by the name of nuclear envelope that is able to separate the contents inside the nucleus from those contained in the cell’s cytoplasm.
• The nuclear material comprised chromatins, DNA, which is the cell’s chromosomes that are formed during cell division, and the nucleolus that is responsible for synthesizing cell the ribosomes.

Functions of the nucleus in plant cell

• The primary function of the cell’s nucleus is that it acts as the cell’s central control point.
• The nuclear membrane is a way to protect the nucleus as well as its contents away from the cytoplasmic organelles. The nuclear membrane contains the nuclear envelope, which contains numerous nuclear pores. This provides permeability selectively between the nucleus and cells.
• The nucleus is also connected to the place for the synthesis of proteins, i.e the endoplasmic Reticulum through the microfilaments that form microtubules. These tubules span all the cell’s manufacturing elements and molecules, based on the particularity that the cells.
• Chromosomes are called the chromatids. They can be found in the nucleus of cells of nearly all cells. They contain six long DNA strands that split into 46 distinct molecules, which are joined to form two molecules, composed of 23 molecules for each the chromosome. In order to form a functional DNA unit it is joined with cel proteins to create the compact structure of fiber-like strands referred to as chromatins.
• The six DNA strands each one wraps around the small proteins produced by the ER called Histones. They form the bead-like nucleosomes. DNA strands possess negative charges that are neutralized by histones positive charge. Unused DNA is folded , and saved for later use.

Chromatins can be classified into two kinds:

• Euchromatin: It’s the active component of DNA which is responsible for transcription and production of cell proteins to regulate cell growth and function.
• Heterochromatin: Heterochromatin is an inactive DNA component that contains the condensed and compressed DNA which is not used.

Chromatin is formed when chromatins alter into other forms of the nucleus in cell division. Through the lifetime of the cell, chromatin fibres change their forms within the nucleus. In the interphase stage of cell division expression of euchromatin begins to initiate transcription. In the metaphase phase the chromatins break up and create its own copies in the process of replication which exposes the chromatins to form more special structures called the chromosomes. The chromosomes divide and separate, creating two complete cells with their individual genetic information.

Nucleolus

• It is a sub-organelle of the nucleus of cells, and is devoid of a membrane.
• Its primary purpose is to synthesize cell ribosomes, which are the organelles which are responsible for the production of cellular proteins.
• The cell is home to around 4 nucleoli.
• The nucleolus develops when chromosomes join shortly before the cell division process begins.
• The nucleolus vanishes the cell during division.
• The nucleolus is connected to cell aging, which influences the process of aging in living things.

Nuclear Envelope

• It is composed of two membranes, separated from one another by a perinuclear space. The space connects to the endoplasmic retina.
• Through its perforated walls it controls the flow of molecules as they enter and exit the nucleus and from the cell.
• The membrane’s inner layer is a membrane composed of proteins that are known as nuclear lamina. They also bind the chromatins as well as various other elements of the nuclear system.
• The envelope breaks down and disappears after cell division.

Nuclear Pores

• They penetrate the cell’s envelope, and serve to regulate the flow of cellular molecules like proteins, histones and other molecules through and out of both the nucleus and cell cytoplasm, respectively.
• They also permit DNA and RNA to get into the nucleus, supplying the energy needed to make genetic material.

Peroxisomes of the Plant cell

These are highly dynamic , tiny structures that possess only one membrane, which contains enzymes that are responsible for making hydrogen peroxide. They play a major role in secondary and primary metabolisms that respond to abiotic as well as the effects of biotic stress on photorespiration as well as cell growth.

Structure of the peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are small, having an average of 0.1-1 um in diameter.
• It is comprised of compartments with the Granulated Matrix.
• They also contain a single membrane.
• They are located in the cell’s cytoplasm.
• The compartments aid in various metabolic processes in the cell, which helps to sustain the functions of cells within the cells.

Functions of the peroxisomes

• Degradation and production of hydrogen peroxide
• The metabolism and oxidation of the fatty acids.
• Metabolizing carbon elements.
• Absorption and photorespiration of Nitrogen to fulfill specific purposes for the plant.
• Providing defense mechanisms against pathogens.

Lysosomes in plant cells?

Lysosomes’ presence within plants is debated , with no proof regarding their structural existence. In plants, it is believed that lysosomes partly differentiate into vacuoles, and then into their Golgi bodiesthat fulfill the functions that are specified for the lysosomes found in plants. As opposed to animals, where lysosomes are distinguished by digestive enzymes as well as hydrolytic enzymes that are responsible to break down toxic substances and eliminating them from cells, and for digestion of proteins In plants, these enzymes are located in the vacuoles and in the Golgi bodies.

A partial difference has been attributed to the multiprocesses that help to create Golgi organisms from endoplasmic retina, which is why there is a brief period of lysosomal excudation that occurs just prior to Golgi bodies are fully formed.

Plant cell Worksheet