Causative Agent Habitat Transmission Risk factors Types of mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) Symptoms of Zygomycosis (Mucormycosis) The symptoms of mucormycosis vary on where the fungus is growing in the body. 1,4 Contact your healthcare practitioner if you believe you have mucormycosis-related symptoms. The following are symptoms of rhinocerebral (sinus and brain) mucormycosis: The following are symptoms of … Read more
Aspergillus species are responsible for a wide variety of diseases in humans, ranging from direct invasion to hypersensitivity reactions. The majority of human diseases are caused by Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger, and less frequently by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus clavatus. Aspergillus, the mould (a type of fungus) that causes aspergillosis, is prevalent both inside … Read more
Candidiasis Properties Pathogenesis and Immunity Candida spp. are typically present as part of the normal flora on the oral cavity, gastrointestinal system, and vaginal mucosa. Candida exhibits colonisation at these sites in over 80% of healthy individuals. However, the organism is rarely seen on the surface of normal human skin, with the exception of the … Read more
What is Cancer Immunotherapy? Manipulation of Co-Stimulatory Signals Can Enhance Immunity Enhancement of APC Activity Can Modulate Tumor Immunity Cytokine Therapy Can Augment Immune Responses to Tumors Interferons Tumor Necrosis Factors In Vitro–Activated LAK And TIL Cells Treatment with Monoclonal Antibodies Key Facts
Tumors Tumor Antigens Some Antigens Are Tumor-Specific Antigens unique to cancers caused by chemical or physical carcinogens, as well as some virally induced malignancies, have been found. It is particularly difficult to demonstrate the presence of tumor-specific antigens on spontaneously developing tumours since the immune response to such tumours destroys all of the tumour cells … Read more
Features of Malignant Cells Malignant cells exhibit the following characteristics: It has been hypothesised that the immune system is partially responsible for protecting the body from the development of cancers. In addition, the presence of multiple tumours in immunocompetent individuals suggests that the immune system has a limited function in defending against cancer and is … Read more
Modern medicine continues to provide numerous marvels that extend the lives of humans and vastly improve their quality of life. The replacement of faulty organs by transplantation has been one of medicine’s unachievable goals for millennia. The dream of health experts has been to replace or restore severely damaged tissues or organs. Successful transplantation needs … Read more
What is Stem cell? Stem Cells Definition Stem cells are unique cells in the body that have the potential to develop into different types of specialized cells or divide to produce more stem cells. Properties of Stem Cells Stem cells possess several intrinsic properties that make them unique and give them remarkable capabilities: These properties … Read more
What is T cell (T Lymphocyte)? Definition of T cell (T Lymphocyte) T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and attacking foreign pathogens, infected cells, and cancer cells. T cells have specialized receptors on … Read more
What are B cells or B lymphocytes? Definition of B cell (B lymphocyte) A B cell, or B lymphocyte, is a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies and plays a crucial role in the immune response against infections. Morphology of B cell (B lymphocyte) Structure of B cell (B lymphocyte) Stage-specific Markers Antigen-binding … Read more
What are Neutrophils? Neutrophils Definition Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system’s defense against infections. They are highly mobile and act as phagocytes, engulfing and destroying bacteria and other harmful substances. Neutrophils are characterized by their multi-lobed nuclei and stainable cytoplasmic granules. They are part … Read more
What are Eosinophils? Definition of Eosinophils Eosinophils are a type of white blood cells that are involved in combating parasites, regulating allergic reactions, and supporting immune responses. They have distinctive granules in their cytoplasm and play a crucial role in maintaining immune system balance. Characteristics of Eosinophil Eosinophils possess several distinctive characteristics: These characteristics collectively … Read more
What is Dendritic cell? Location of Dendritic cell DCs in lymphoid organs Lymph nodes Spleen Thymus Blood Skin Gut Structure of Dendritic cells Dendritic cell maturation Mechanism of Dendritic Cells in Immunity – How Dendritic cells work against pathogens? (Immunity) Dendritic Cell Function in Innate Immune System Dendritic Cells Function in Innate Immunity to Adaptive … Read more
What is Body Lines of Defense? Defense Systems – Innate and Acquired Defense Systems When the body encounters invaders, it deploys two distinct types of responses: the Innate (Natural/Non-specific) response and the Acquired (Adaptive/Specific) response. These responses form the body’s defense systems against foreign particles. The Innate response remains consistent regardless of the number of … Read more
What are Anatomical Barriers? Anatomical barriers serve as the first line of defense against invading microbes or parasites, preventing them from entering the body and causing infection. These barriers consist of physical structures that organisms must attach to and penetrate before gaining entrance into the body. Microbes or parasites can enter the body through active … Read more
What is Passive Immunity? Definition of Passive Immunity Passive immunity is the temporary protection against infectious diseases provided by the introduction of pre-formed antibodies from an external source, rather than the body’s own immune response. Characteristics of Passive Immunity Passive immunity possesses several distinct characteristics that differentiate it from active immunity: In summary, passive immunity … Read more
What is Active Immunity? Definition of Active Immunity Active immunity refers to the immunity that is acquired when the body’s own immune system produces antibodies in response to exposure to a foreign antigen, such as a pathogen or vaccine. It provides long-lasting protection against specific antigens. Characteristics of Active Immunity Active immunity possesses several key … Read more
Features Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity Types of acquired immunity An acquired immunity against a microorganism may be produced through the host’s response to the bacterium or by the transfer of particular antibodies or lymphocytes. There are two types of immunity: active and passive. 1. Active immunity Types of Active immunity There are two varieties of active … Read more
The immune system is a complex network of organs, tissues, and cells that work together to keep the body healthy and protect it against outside intruders. Among the numerous components of the immune system, immune system cells play an important role in identifying and removing dangerous chemicals. Primary lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid organs are … Read more
The immune system is a large network of tissues, organs, proteins, and cells. A properly functioning immune system can discriminate between healthy tissue and foreign things. If it identifies an unwelcome material, it will launch a complicated attack to defend the body from intruders. In addition, it identifies and eliminates damaged and dead cells. However, … Read more
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